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SOLAR RADIATION.   Term Paper ID:18892 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Impact of sun's energy on the layers of Earth's atmosphere. Physics, absorption & evaporation, sunspots, ozone layer, magnetism.... More...

12 Pages / 2700 Words 3 sources, 28 Citations, OTHER Format $48.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Impact of sun's energy on the layers of Earth's atmosphere. Physics, absorption & evaporation, sunspots, ozone layer, magnetism. Paper Introduction: SOLAR RADIATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE As the earth's nearest star, the sun determines much of what happens on the earth--its energy is what allows continued life on the earth, and its actions create the earth's weather, in the form of wind, clouds, and other climatic examples. The sun's warmth and energy are so important that without them the earth would become encased in ice (1:74). However, the earth is not completely open to solar radiation. The different layers of the earth's atmosphere provide different interactions (and different results from those interactions) with solar radiation. The earth's atmosphere, the receiving end of the sun's radiation, is divided into four parts: the troposphere, which is the bottom-most layer and extends from the earth's surface to about 11 kilometers high (at which point the stratosphere Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The relationshipbetween sunspots (and other disturbances or changes in the sun's radiation)and the earth's atmosphere is uncertain. Clouds can have different albedos depending on theirthickness; thick clouds have higher albedos than thin clouds. This effect is similar to soup being strained throughsuch successively fine strainers that the final product is greatly reducedin volume. The morewater is evaporated from an ocean, therefore, the thicker the clouds formedwould be, leading to less solar radiation striking the earth's surface asmore of the radiation was either absorbed or reflected back into space. Air at the earth'ssurface is heated by these emissions by conduction but then cools as itrises, a process known as convection. St. The sun's rays also cause evaporation of sea water, which thencollects in clouds to fall later as rain or snow after being transported bywinds to different areas. Here, intense solar radiationfalls on thin gases and causes reactions that turn neutral atoms andmolecules into ions, which are particles that carry an electric charge(3:83). These short waves ionize some of theatmospheric gases, such as nitric oxide. Earth's aura. Many of these reactions alsoemit light, causing the sky to glow at night. These changes usuallyaffect the surface of the earth minimally, however, showing up only assmall pressure changes. The mesosphere itself is noted for its limited ability to absorbsolar radiation. It lies closestto the poles and has its maximum height over the equator. Sunlight warmingthe upper portion of the atmosphere also creates thermal tides, movementand changes in density of the air in that layer. Yet, there is enough heat absorbed by the earth's surface thatlife can be sustained on most parts of the planet. The ozonelayer is not of uniform thickness at all altitudes (3:85). Meteorology today: An introduction to weather, climate, and the environment. The presence of sunspots has been tentatively connected to colderweather on the earth because of the theory that the sunspots repress solarradiation, being strong magnetic fields that are cooler themselves than therest of the sun. The sunacts as a very efficient absorber and emitter of radiation, acharacteristic that makes it a so-called black body. Thischaracteristic makes it a "selective" absorber. The earth's atmosphere, the receiving end of the sun's radiation, isdivided into four parts: the troposphere, which is the bottom-most layerand extends from the earth's surface to about 11 kilometers high (at whichpoint the stratosphere starts); the stratosphere, which lies above thetroposphere and has increased temperatures at heights above 2 kilometers;the mesosphere, which is the next layer (sometimes described as the "cold"layer); and the thermosphere, or "hot" layer. As one can see, by the time solar radiation reaches the earth'ssurface, most of it is absorbed by gases in the upper layers of theatmosphere (1:78). . B. The magnetism that comes along with the solar wind, however, isstrong enough to affect the earth's atmosphere. Sunspots,dark areas on the sun's surface, are used by scientists to map changes inthe sun's magnetic activity. The coldness of the mesosphere isseparated from the warmer thermosphere by a layer called the mesopause.Temperatures begin to increase once the thermosphere is entered. The increasing concentration of atmospheric oxygen wasa key factor in the earth being able to support life. The increase intemperature is accompanied by a corresponding increase in total radiationemitted per second (1:57) (E is equivalent to T4 (the Stefan-Boltzmannlaw)). These particles are stripped of theirelectrons as they collide with one another and acquire the speed necessaryto escape the gravitational pull of the sun. Thesewavelengths vary depending on the temperature of the source. The importance of the earth's atmosphere is only now being fullyrecognized. The spots actually are manifestations ofmassive changes on the sun. At the tropopause, the boundary layer between the troposphere and thestratosphere, exists an "isothermal," or equal temperature zone. Using the Stefan-Boltzmann law, a unit area on the sun emits almost16 , times more energy than the same area on the earth. Then, its output would have been so high as to split water vapormolecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Solar radiation is not a unique or unusual phenomenon--everythingwith a temperature above absolute zero, from flowers to the human body,emits radiation (1:56). The splitting of the oxygen molecules relies directly on theintensity of solar radiation (3:85), which is why it is produced at thegreatest rate over the tropics. In the outermost region of the sun, there is a constant stream of gasparticles being jettisoned. As part of the earth's environment, it is a tangible regionthat extends beyond the blue skies (or the smog) Without further researchand careful environmental practice, the balance between the earth'satmosphere and solar radiation could be upset irretrievably, leaving theearth's inhabitants open to lethal radiation doses. There is also believed tobe another source of luminescence that is not connected with the auroras.This source is speculated as merely being ionized oxygen and nitrogen andother gases that have been excited by solar radiation. The earth also reflects some of the solar radiation back to the sun.The reflectivity of the earth's surface is called its "albedo." Cleanwhite snow, for example, can reflect up to 95 percent of the solarradiation that hits it, meaning that its albedo can be as high as 95percent (1:65). Paul, MN: West; 1988.2. Ozone is identifiable even in traceamounts by its distinctive smell (the primary ingredient in smog, itirritates the eyes and the throat). The sametemperature as was found at 11 kilometers is found here at 17 kilometers.With the beginning of the stratosphere, the temperature begins to increase. Solar radiation comes mostly from the sun's surface, where thetemperature is nearly 6, Kelvins (K), or 1 ,5 degrees Fahrenheit (F),as compared with the earth's more modest 288 K, or 59 degrees F. A noticeable example of thisphenomenon occurs during the summer, when road surfaces become blisteringlyhot during the day as they absorb heat from the sun. The sun's warmth and energy are so important thatwithout them the earth would become encased in ice (1:74). These cycles ofradiation repeat on the order of thousands of years and may be responsiblefor warming trends and ice ages. That heat is then released from the ground during thenight to warm the air above it (1:56). The primary causes of ionization inthe upper atmosphere are ultraviolet solar radiation, high-energy cosmicrays from the sun (and from supernova collisions), and collisions betweenair molecules and energetic particles from the magnetosphere (1:9 ). New York: Alfred A. Between the stratosphere and the mesosphere (the next layer) comesthe stratopause, another isothermal layer at which temperatures even offagain. Water vaporserves as an important factor in the earth's atmospheric energy balancebecause it strongly absorbs infrared radiation (1:26). Ahrens, C. Air temperatures in this layer change dependingon the activity of the sun. A projected increase in the deadly skincancer melanoma could also take place if the damage to the ozone is notreversed or at least contained. Yet, 99 percent ofthe earth's atmosphere is nitrogen and oxygen, neither of which absorbsmuch heat. About half ofthe sun's radiant energy, which has short wavelengths, passes through theearth's atmosphere to its surface. Changes in the orientation of theearth, however, result in "regular and predictable variations in the amountof solar radiation reaching various portions of this surface" (3:238),which in turn affects the earth's climatic cycles. Evidently, even the smallest traces of gases such as watervapor and carbon dioxide act as powerful heat absorbers. Auroral displays are merely a small part of solar radiation's effecton the earth's atmosphere, though they are among the most visible. This paradox results because althoughtheoretically the molecules are moving fast enough to generate hightemperatures, there are not enough of them to bounce against a thermometerand thereby generate the heat to raise the bulb's temperature. Under the sun. Belowan elevation of about 6 kilometers (or 37 miles), there is not enoughultraviolet radiation to start a reaction with any of the atmosphericgases. However, theearth is not completely open to solar radiation. . The sun's surface is more than twenty times hotter than that of theearth. The cold is a result of the lack of ozone especially, andconsequently the molecules that do settle in this region are able to emitmore energy than they absorb, which results in an energy deficit and anaccompanying temperature decrease. Actually,when it is not exposed directly to the sun, the bulb completely loses anyheat it has, thus recording a temperature of about absolute zero (1:88). The thermosphere is rich in molecular oxygen, which absorbs the short-wave solar radiation well. Like the cellsof the human body, which are always in the process of dying and beingreplaced, the ozone molecules are constantly being destroyed andreplenished. As thetemperature increases, the electrons vibrate faster and the wavelengthsemitted become shorter. Literature Cited1. The solar windconstantly flows around the earth, but its high temperature (about 3 , degrees F) does not pose a threat because there are so few particles percubic inch--the amount of energy (heat) transferred upon striking a solidbody is tiny. 178:66-99; 199 .3. (During the day, the sun'slight is too strong to see this glow.) This glow is called the aurora borealis, or "northern lights," whenseen from the northern latitudes and the aurora australis, or "southernlights," when seen from the southern. Above the ozone, the temperaturesincrease, as this is where most of the ultraviolet radiation responsiblefor heat is absorbed. D. The earth and its atmosphere have an albedo of about 3 percent, andabout 19 percent of solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere andclouds--the remaining 51 percent penetrates the lower atmosphere to warmthe earth's surface. This part that the sun plays in thehydrologic (water) cycle is an important part of survival of plants andanimals on the earth's surface, since it affects both the amount ofsunlight and the amount of water received on the earth. Ultraviolet radiation also has the powerto be able to destroy acids on the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule.DNA supplies the genetic blueprint that makes a fully functional humanbeing possible. Solar storms or flares, which cancause power surges and disruption in short-wave communications as well ashaving the power to knock a satellite out of orbit, often are presaged bysunspots. Then, at night, onecan feel the heat rising from those surfaces as they emit their storedinfrared energy. Matthews, S. This process of heating air and thenusing the principles of convection to distribute its heat are the conceptsbehind cooking with convection ovens. The long-term forecast on the greenhouse effect is also relevant tothe study of solar radiation's effect on the atmosphere. Most of the earth's weatheroccurs in the troposphere (1:7). The different layers ofthe earth's atmosphere provide different interactions (and differentresults from those interactions) with solar radiation. SOLAR RADIATION AND THE ATMOSPHERE As the earth's nearest star, the sun determines much of what happenson the earth--its energy is what allows continued life on the earth, andits actions create the earth's weather, in the form of wind, clouds, andother climatic examples. 3rd ed. The totalenergy "emitted by the sun amounts to a staggering 6 billion, billion,billion calories" (1:59); that is like a comparison between the amount ofcalories needed by a baby whale and a baby human being for propernutrition. The shortest wavelengths are visible to the humaneye, as when a very hot burner on a stove glows red. Young, L. The auroras have been recorded throughout humanhistory, although they are rarer in some regions (such as France) thanothers (such as the northern tip of Scotland). This solar wind is very hot and not very substantial; in fact, itsdensity of 9 ions per cubic inch is almost insignificant when comparedwith the density of the earth's atmosphere at sea level: 443 billion,billion, billion, billion molecules per cubic inch (3:183). The penetrating power of radiation coming from the sun depends on itsenergy. Earth'satmosphere, on the other hand, does not absorb all radiation; rather, itwill absorb some wavelengths but will be transparent to others. These charged particles,known collectively as solar wind, or "plasma," journey through space at aspeed that ranges between 22 and 5 miles per second (3:183). The sun is not a young star, and, therefore, it does not give off asmuch radiation as it probably did when it was less than a billion yearsold. The earth's atmosphere acts as a complex set of screens and filtersagainst the incoming solar radiation. In this layer, ozone plays a large part in heat absorption, although it isonly present in small quantities. Withoutthe various interactions that take place between the,layers of atmosphereand the radiation, the earth's surface would be vulnerable to heavyradiation doses. The hydrogen probably rose and escapedinto space, while the oxygen remained to form a major component of theearth's atmosphere. Radiation basically is a range of electromagneticwaves that are radiated from rapidly vibrating electrons. At certain times, asduring increased sunspot and solar flare activity, the solar wind is denserand carries more energy. An understandingof the process of destruction and regeneration in the ozone layer mayultimately provide clues to repairing the holes and damage in the ozonethat have appeared over the poles. However, the longer waves, whichare reflected back toward space, are absorbed and reradiated by watervapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases, and clouds, causing the earth'satmosphere to warm (2:57); yet, "over time, the outgoing radiation balancesthe incoming" (2:56). The clouds also block solar radiation fromreaching the earth's surface. W. Knopf; 1977.----------------------- 13 The Eskimos in Hudson Bay believedthat the aurora borealis' polar lights were cast by the lanterns of demons"searching the universe for lost souls" (3:185). When solar activitydecreases in general, so do these "auroral" displays. They are more likely to develop on long,cold, clear, dry nights, when both the ground and the air are able toradiate their energy more directly into outer space, thus cooling rapidly. Though the physics behind the mechanisms are different, the earth'satmosphere acts like the glass of a greenhouse, letting the sun's visiblerays enter while retarding the escape of heat (2:74). The atoms lose electrons and become positively charged when theycannot absorb all of the energy being transferred to them by solarradiation or another (colliding) particle. The troposphere receives all the infrared energy that the earthconstantly emits (as well as the incoming radiation). As the spots migrate across the sun's surface,they affect the total amount of radiation the sun emits. Color has nothing todo with this descriptive term; scientists merely use the term to label anyobject that is a perfect absorber and,emitter of radiation. In the thermosphere, solar radiation supplies enough energy to breakO2 into separate oxygen atoms, a process shown in this equation: O2 +solar radiation -> O + O (1:87). Energy left over from the reactionsincreases the motion of the atoms, but because there are relatively fewatoms and molecules in this part of the atmosphere the absorption of asmall amount of solar radiation can cause a large increase in temperature.The result is an "inversion," or an increase in temperature with height.Radiation inversions occur when "the air near the ground is much colderthan the air higher up" (1:1 8). Solar radiation travels toward the earth at a speed of nearly 3 , kilometers (186, miles) per second; on average, it takes sunlight about8 minutes to reach the earth's outermost atmosphere (1:78). When the wind reaches the earth, it has thecapability to change the shape of the earth's magnetosphere, pulling it outinto an oblong shape as if it were pulling off a candy bar wrapper. National Geo. One study has indicated that there is "a direct linkbetween sunspots and the atmosphere of the earth" (2:91) --a connectionbetween reversing winds in the stratosphere, polar air temperatures on theearth, and the sun's sunspot cycle. There is a notable scarcity of molecules in this layer,and the temperature becomes increasingly cold as the layer goes up; the airpressure at this point is almost a thousand times lower than it is at theearth's surface (1:85). Above the ozone, solar radiation also affects a wide band ofatmosphere called the ionosphere, which is not really a layer so much as anelectrified region of the thermosphere. The earth is surrounded by a protective part of the atmosphere calledthe ozone layer, This layer lies in the stratosphere and prevents most ofthe sun's dangerous ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth's surface. Yet, wind carries away the most ozone-enriched layer, so that ultimately the ozone collects at high latitudes.Fluctuations in solar activity result in varying levels of ozone as well. Though high air temperatures are predicted,actual readings are much lower. Solar radiation itself is not a constant factor (2:86). The more energetic the radiation molecules, the more easily theradiation can pass through matter, although it still cannot pass throughsomething impossibly thick, such as a thousand feet of rock, no matter howenergetic the molecules are (3:197). The magnetosphere does not actually leave contact with the earth; thesolar wind merely distorts the earth's geomagnetic field and sets upregions of trapped particles that oscillate back and forth ("Van Allenbelts") like insects trapped between the glass of a window and its screen.Places that let the particles out, equivalent to holes in the windowscreen, result in a phenomenon described earlier--the aurora borealis andthe aurora australis . Just as ultraviolet rays today are used for killing bacteriain water and on certain foods, those same rays would sterilize the earth. Interestingly, the combination ff two O3 molecules destroys the ozoneand results in three oxygen gas molecules (O3 + O3 -> 3O2). Depending on the intensity of the radiation, theconsequences would range from severe burns for humans to utter destructionof all life. Infact, the ozone is created by solar bombardment of oxygen gas molecules(O2) in the atmosphere, which break apart and re-form as ozone (O3).Sunlight, however, also breaks down to form O2 and single oxygen atoms. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.