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NUCLEAR ENERGY IN ITALY.   Term Paper ID:20572 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Public opinion, safety, impact of Chernobyl, design, types of reactors, regulations.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Public opinion, safety, impact of Chernobyl, design, types of reactors, regulations. Paper Introduction: Nuclear Energy in Italy Following the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, an Italian referendum held in November of 1987 showed widespread opposition to all nuclear development. In response to this poll, Italy's government came out with a new National Energy Plan (PEN) in August 1988. The plan placed a 5year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants and called for research into newer, safer designs that would one day allow nuclear power to return. Since PEN went into effect, nuclear energy technologies have progressed considerably. These advances, as well as other factors, may soon cause Italy to reevaluate its nuclear energy policy. The public poll of 1987 rejected an array of propositions that either favored nuclear power or facilitated the siting of Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Chernobyl: The Real Story. "Cesium 137 and Cesium 134 Human Internal Contamination in Italy Following the 1986 Chernobyl Event." Radiation Protection Dosimetry 32, (199 ): 259-271.Wilson, Richard. A study performed by theJapanese, however, found that survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki sufferfrom a 5% higher incidence of cancer.[xxiv] While this is not a hugenumber, the data do show that a given dose of radiation produces two tothree times the number of cancers than had been thought previously.[xxv] Such devastating effects mandate that the potential for a recurrenceof Chernobyl and Three Mile Island-type accidents be made negligible.Following the disaster, various recommendations were made that might haveprevented Unit 4 from going critical.[xxvi] These included additionalsafeguards such as limit switches and trip protections.[xxvii] A number ofdesign modifications may have also made the Russian plant safer.[xxviii]In 1976, a visiting British group noted that Russian reactors lacked suchthings as emergency core cooling and containment systems.[xxix] However,no attempt to make old nuclear reactors safer can compare with some of therecent advances achieved towards improving the safety of new reactors. New York: Pergamon Press, 1988.Orlov, V.V. "Chernobyl--The Accident Sequence." In Chernobyl: A Technical Appraisal. Salvaderi, "An International Perspective on the Futur ofPower Generation and Transmission World Wide: The ItalianCase," IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 7 (March 1992):83-83.Ibid.----------------------- 1 Pello, "L'infrastruttura elettrica europea: risultatiraggiunti e problemi aperti," Elettrotecnica 76 (July 1989):554.Albisu et al., 182.Ibid.L. Throughout the test, normal safety procedures wereroutinely violated. Norton &Company, 1982), 272.D.R. One constraintthough is the environment.[xlviii] For one, Italy has stringentregulations regarding SO2 and NOX emissions.[xlix] In addition, there areissues relating to the release of CO2 that must be addressed as well.[l]Thus, in light of these circumstances it seems almost inevitable that, inthe years ahead, Italy will be forced to reaffirm its commitment to nuclearenergy. The idea is to make the probability of a Chernobyl-type accidentreoccurring so remote that, for all practical purposes, it becomes"unconceivable." In this way ENEL hopes to win public acceptance.[vi] Past nuclear accidents--although they may still weigh heavily inItaly's national consciousness--did actually result from circumstanceswhich are unlikely to arise again in the future. Oneexample of an SMSNR is the modular high-temperature gas-cooled reactor(HTR). Debru, "Design of the EFR," Transactions ofthe American Nuclear Society, 66 (1992): 345.Orlov, 352.David Dickson and Alison Abbott, "Britain Prepares to LeaveEuropean Fast-Breeder Reactor Programme," Nature 36 (12November 1992): 93.Alison Abbott, "Germany Follows Britain in Dumping FastBreeder," Nature 36 (24/31 December 1992): 7 3.Albisu et al., 179.Ibid, 179-184.Sergio Barabaschi, "PIUS on the Move in Italy," NuclearEngineering International 36 (June 1991): 52-53.Ibid.Albisu et al., 182.Ibid.Michael Cross, "Simple Error Slows Down Japan's Fast Breeder,"New Scientist 132 (9 November 1992): 26.P.M. The Warning. These two isotopes becameincorporated into Italy's food supply.[xxiii] The long-term consequences ofsuch radioactive pollution are generally unknown. Endnotes BibliographyAbbott, Alison. London: British Nuclear Energy Society, 1987, 27-41.-----------------------Angelo Gadola, "Challenging Design Objectives and Criteria forFuture Nuclear Plants in Italy," Transactions of the AmericanNuclear Society 66 (1992): 31 .F. Inthe event that accident conditions make core cooling inadequate, theinherent characteristics of fluid mechanics and gravity cause an automaticwater influx. Smith et al., "Design and Control Characteristics of theRBMK Reactor," In Chernobyl: A Technical Appraisal (London:British Nuclear Energy Society, 1987), 3.Ibid., 3.Wilson, 1117-1118.Ibid.Smith et al., 3.Richard F. "The Chernobyl Accident--Source Terms and Related Characteristics." In Chernobyl: A Technical Appraisal London: British Nuclear Energy Society, 1987, 43-6 .Cross, Michael. Norton & Company, 1982.Leny, Jean-Claude. Tarroni et al., "Cesium 137 and Cesium 134 Human InternalContamination in Italy Following the 1986 Chernobyl Event,"Radiation Protection Dosimetry 32 (199 ): 259.Ibid.Wilson, 1117.Ibid.Young, 4 .Ibid.Smith, 4-5.Ibid.Michael Cross, "Crises Fuel Japan's Nuclear Industry," NewScientist 128 (1 November 199 ): 27.Martelli et al., "Development of Design Guidelines forSeismically Isolated Nuclear Reactors and Research andDevelopment Work Performed by ENEA," Nuclear Technology 97(February 1992): 153, 167.Ibid.Jean-Claude Leny, "The European Pressurized Reactor," ScientificAmerican, 266 (March 1993): FR1 -11.Ibid.C.H. Its primaryfocus has been to enhance the safety characteristics of nuclear powerplants; nuclear reactors which it claims could be built in Italy within thenext decade. The result was adecrease in coolant flow through the reactor that--due to its particularconfiguration--ultimately led to a vicious cycle whereby small changes inpower ultimately produced increases in reactor power. New York: W.W. "The European Pressurized Reactor." Scientific American 266 (March 1993): FR1 -11.Martelli, A.; Forni, M.; Indirli, M.; Masoni, P. Nuclear technologies havebeen evolving for some 5 years.[vii] The first "nuclear electricity" wasproduced in 1952. Besides the five-year moratorium onconstruction, PEN also shut down three operating plants and forced theconversion of a nearly completed facility to non-nuclear fuels.[v] Despitethe drastic nature of these effects though, with the end of the 5-yearmoratorium fast approaching, the subject of Italian nuclear policy has onceagain become a matter of consideration. Young, "Chernobyl--The Accident Sequence," In Chernobyl: ATechnical Appraisal (London: British Nuclear Energy Society,1987), 27.Ibid., 27-39.Orlov, 353.P.N. The resulting innovations includebuilding reactors in pits that make them safer by lowering their center ofgravity.[xxx] In addition, Italy's National Committee for Nuclear Energyand Alternative Energies (ENEA) has recently performed work on seismicisolators.[xxxi] The ENEA has found that high-damping steel-laminatedelastomer bearings installed at the base of power plant structures act toreduce seismic loads.[xxxii] Other technological advances include development of the new EuropeanPressurized Reactor (EPR).[xxxiii] This light water design consists of acylindrical double containment housing surrounded by, yet another, annularprotective structure. "Large-Scale Nuclear Power: Breeding and Inherent Safety." Transactions of the American Nuclear Society 66 (1992): 352-353.Pello, P.M. Thus, by precluding the use of detection equipment andoperator action in core protection, the plant's safety is assured.[xlii] These new designs may help convince Italians that nuclearpower is now safe. The EFR's drawbacks include that itis not economically competitive with thermal reactors and also that itsrequirement for plutonium may act to encourage nuclearproliferation.[xxxvii] Because of this, the technology may not be suitablefor Italy: in fact, Britain and Germany have both withdrawn from their ownEFR development programs.[xxxviii] A family of nuclear plants which may have greater potential foracceptance in Italy includes the small and medium-sizedreactors (SMSNRs).[xxxix] These offer a variety of features which enhancesafety including simplified construction, operation, and maintenance. "PIUS on the Move in Italy." Nuclear Engineering International 36 (June 1991): 52-53.Clough, P.N. This catastrophic increase caused fuelfragmentation, rapid steam generation, and the destruction of both thereactor core and its various surrounding structures.[xviii] Both the Chernobyl and Three Mile Island accidents basically involveda loss of coolant, fires, and explosions.[xix] At Chernobyl, the initialexplosion released fission products including iodine, cesium, andtellarium.[xx] In the days that followed, the reactor core top was leftfully exposed to the atmosphere and an intense graphite fire developed. et al. These negligent actions culminated with plantpersonnel switching off various reactor trips. Clough, "The Chernobyl Accident--Source Terms and RelatedCharacteristics," In Chernobyl: A Technical Appraisal (London:British Nuclear Energy Society, 1987), 47.Ibid., 47-48.G. "Germany Follows Britain in Dumping Fast Breeder." Nature 36 , 24/31 December 1992: 7 3.Albisu, F. When an emergency stopvalve to the turbine being tested subsequently closed, Unit 4's maincooling pumps began running down with the generator. For example, work being performed has improved the ability of nuclearpower plants to withstand earthquakes. % perannum or more.[xlvii] Currently, the Italian government plans to reduceits power imports by burning more coal and natural gas. "Design of the EFR." Transactions of the American Nuclear Society 66 (1992): 344-345.Mould, Richard F. Itwasn't until about a week after the meltdown, however, that the majority ofradioactivity released into the environment occurred. Its safety features include multiple fluid systemsdesigned to mitigate the consequences of any accident;thereby preventingradioactive leakage into the environment.[xxxiv] Yet another type of reactor currently being evaluated is the EuropeanFast Reactor (EFR).[xxxv] These liquid-metal breeder reactors typicallyemploy heavy coolants such as liquid sodium or lead.[xxxvi] Their futurein Europe, however, may be in doubt. The following decades brought a rapid expansion ofnuclear power generation.[viii] A typical nuclear plant converts hightemperatures produced by fission into low cost power using steam andturbine technology.[ix] These light water reactors have been involved inboth of this century's worst nuclear disasters (i.e., Three Mile Islandand Chernobyl).[x][xi] Despite their past record though, lightwater reactor designs have matured somewhat in recent years. "Britain Prepares to Leave European Fast- Breeder Reactor Programme." Nature 36 , 12 November 1992: 93.Gadola, Angelo. Orlov, "Large-Scale Nuclear Power: Breeding and InherentSafety," Transactions of the American Nuclear Society 66 (1992): 352.Ibid.Richard Wilson, "The Future of Nuclear Power," EnvironmentalScience & Technology 26 (June 1992): 1116.Mike Gray and Ira Rosen. "Development of Design Guidelines for Seismically Isolated Nuclear Reactors and Research and Development Work Performed by ENEA." Nuclear Technology 97 (February 1992): 153-169.Mitchell, C.H., & Debru, M. On April 25, operators began to reduce power on one of Unit 4'sturbogenerators. Mitchell and M. "Simple Error Slows Down Japan's Fast Breeder." New Scientist 132, 9 November 1992: 26.Cross, Michael. For example, the ECCS was shut down, the flow rate insome of the main cooling pumps was allowed to exceed permissible values,and an error with respect to power control caused the reactor to operate atbelow minimum levels. fordistrict heating, desalinization plants, etc.).[xl] Another new group of nuclear reactors are the PIUS (electricityproduction) and SECURE (heat production) reactors.[xli] These innovativedesigns are characterized by inherent or passive safety features based onthe simple laws of gravity and thermohydraulics. "L'infrastruttura elettrica europea: risultati raggiunti e problemi aperti." Elettrotecnica 76 (July 1989): 553-559.Salvaderi, L. This radioactive assaulton the atmosphere didn't abate until cooling nitrogen was injectedunderneath the core on day 1 .[xxi] Radioactive contamination due to Chernobyl spread quickly.[xxii] InItaly, the main pollutant was initially iodine 131. The Italian national utility, ENEL, is currently promoting theresults of its nuclear research and development programs. Present in the air,its main route of ingestion by man was inhalation. "An International Perspective on the Future of Power Generation and Transmission World Wide: The Italian Case." IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion 7 (March 1992): 83-92.Smith, D.R.; Luckhurst, D.P.; Maccabee, A.R. "The Future of Nuclear Power." Environmental Science & Technology 26 (June 1992): 1116-1121.Young, J.D. The Warning (New York: W.W. "Challenging Design Objectives and Criteria for Future Nuclear Plants in Italy." Transactions of the American Nuclear Society 66 (1992): 31 .Gray, Mike, & Rosen, Ira. The public poll of 1987 rejected an array of propositions that eitherfavored nuclear power or facilitated the siting of electricity generatingunits.[iv] Its overall result was to bring the commercial development ofnuclear power in Italy to a halt. Later, iodine 131 wasreplaced by cesium 137 and cesium 134. These advances, as well as other factors,may soon cause Italy to reevaluate its nuclear energy policy. Albisu, "Market Prospects of Modular HTR in EEC Countries,"Nuclear Engineering and Design 136 (1992): 182.Gadola, 31 .Albisu et al., 182.Ibid.Gadola, 31 .V.V. One of the earliest designs--implemented primarily during the 197 s--was the boiling-water reactor.[xii] In this type of nuclear reactor, thereis no heat exchanger to isolate radioactivity from the steam turbinesystem.[xiii] Subsequently, any leakage from the core will generateradiation problems.[xiv] It was just such a boiling-water design thatcontributed to the devastating consequences at Chernobyl.[xv] The Ukraine's Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant contained four nuclearreactors.[xvi] The meltdown happened at Chernobyl Unit 4.[xvii] Theaccident occurred during tests designed to determine the extent to which aturbine generator could support essential systems during a major blackout.After cutting off steam supplies to one of the turbogenerators, the plantoperators planned to use its inertial rundown to supply electricity to thereactor's fast acting emergency cooling system (ECCS). Nuclear Energy in Italy Following the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, an Italian referendumheld in November of 1987 showed widespread opposition to all nucleardevelopment.[i] In response to this poll, Italy's government came out witha new National Energy Plan (PEN) in August 1988.[ii] The plan placed a 5-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear plants and called forresearch into newer, safer designs that would one day allow nuclear powerto return.[iii] Since PEN went into effect, nuclear energy technologieshave progressed considerably. London: British Nuclear Energy Society, 1987, 3-25.Tarroni, G.; Melandri, C.; Battisti, P.; Castellani, C.M.; Formignani, M.; Rampa, E. In 1989, the country's electricityrequirements totalled 229 TWh.[xliii] Of this, approximately 14.7% wasimported.[xliv] Although nuclear power plants are expensive to build(Japan's Monju plant will cost about $5 billion), the cost of the energyproduced by them is fairly reasonable.[xlv] The electricity that Italyimports from France cost about 5 -7 L./kWh.; this is economicallycompetitive with electricity generated by other fuel sources (i.e., coal,hydraulic, nuclear, etc.).[xlvi] The problem is that the importation ofFrench electricity represents a drain on the Italian national economy.Furthermore, based on the electricity demand trend from 1983 to 1988,Italy's future electricity consumption could continue to rise by 4. "Crises Fuel Japan's Nuclear Industry." New Scientist 128, 1 November 199 : 27.Dickson, David, & Abbott, Alison. Within about fourseconds power within the Chernobyl light water reactor climbed to one-hundred times full power. During days 7-9 ofthe disaster, the insulating effects of material dumped on top of the sitecaused its temperature to climb to over 2 C. "Market Prospects of Modular HTR in EEC Countries." Nuclear Engineering and Design 136 (1992): 179-185.Barabaschi, Sergio. In the PIUS reactor, forexample, the entire core is submerged in a large pool of borated water.The cooling capability of this water is kept greater than core power. HTR technology could be employed for such things as small-scalepower generation and mid- to high-temperature heat supply (i.e. Mould, Chernobyl: The Real Story (New York:Pergamon Press, 1988), 1.J.D. "Design and Control Characteristics of the RBMK Reactor." In Chernobyl: A Technical Appraisal. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.