A 

Abortion
Accounting
Advertising
Africa
African-American Studies
Aging
Agriculture
American Indian Studies
Anthropology
Archaeology
Architecture
Argumentative
Art: Artists (Alphabetized)
Art: General
Become an Affiliate and Earn $$$
Biographies (Alphabetized)
Book Reviews (Non-Fiction) (Alphabetized)
Business: Companies (Alphabetized)
Business: General
Business: Industries (Alphabetized)
Business: International
Business: Small
California
Canada
Caribbean
Child Abuse
China
Communication: Journalism
Communication: Language & Speech
Communication: Media
Communication: Non-Verbal
Communication: Television
Communication: Television & Children
Communism
Computer Science
Consumerism
Criminal Justice: General
Criminal Justice: Juvenile Delinquency
Criminal Justice: Police Science
Criminal Justice: Prisons
Cuba
Death & Dying: Euthanasia
Death & Dying: General
Death & Dying: Suicide
Drama: American
Drama: English
Drama: World
Drugs: Alcohol
Drugs: General
Economics: Banking
Economics: Economists (Alphabetized)
Economics: General
Economics: Inflation
Economics: International Trade
Economics: Macroeconomics
Economics: Microeconomics
Economics: Taxation
Education: Administration
Education: Curriculum
Education: General
Education: Higher
Education: Physical
Education: Psychology
Education: Reading
Education: Special
Education: Teaching Methods
Education: Theory
Energy: General
Energy: Nuclear
Energy: Solar
Environmental Studies
Evolution
Family & Marriage
Films: Artists (Alphabetized)
Films: General
Finance: Companies (Alphabetized)
Finance: General
Former Soviet Union: Post-1990
France
Gender & Sexuality
Geography
Germany
History: Ancient Greek & Roman
History: European
History: Great Britain
History: U.S. (After 1865)
History: U.S. (Before 1865)
History: U.S. Presidency
History: U.S. Presidents (Alphabetized)
Homosexuality
Immigration
India
Indonesia
International Relations: Arms Control
International Relations: Cold War
International Relations: Non-U.S.
International Relations: U.S.
Japan
Jewish Studies
Korea
Labor
Latin America
Law: Business
Law: Capital Punishment
Law: General
Law: International & Non-U.S.
Law: Supreme Court
Leadership
Literature, American: Authors (Alphabetized)
Literature, American: Faulkner
Literature, American: Fitzgerald
Literature, American: General
Literature, American: Hawthorne
Literature, American: Hemingway
Literature, American: Melville
Literature, American: Poe
Literature, American: Steinbeck
Literature, American: Twain
Literature, English: Authors (Alphabetized)
Literature, English: Chaucer
Literature, English: Conrad
Literature, English: Dickens
Literature, English: General
Literature, English: Joyce
Literature, English: Lawrence
Literature, English: Shakespeare
Literature, English: Swift
Literature, General: Children
Literature, General: Classic (Greek & Roman)
Literature, General: Russian
Literature, General: World
Management: General
Management: Japanese
Management: Motivation
Management: Theory
Management: Women
Marketing: Companies (Alphabetized)
Marketing: General
Marketing: Plans
Mathematics
Medical: Aids
Medical: Dentistry
Medical: Diseases & Disorders (Alphabetized)
Medical: General
Medical: Nursing
Mexican-American Studies
Mexico
Middle East: Egypt
Middle East: General
Middle East: O.P.E.C.
Military
Music: Classical
Music: General
Mythology
Nutrition
Parapsychology/Occult
Philosophy: Ancient Greek
Philosophy: Descartes
Philosophy: Eastern
Philosophy: General
Philosophy: Kant
Philosophy: Sartre
Poetry: American
Poetry: English
Poetry: Milton
Poetry: World
Political Science: Elections & Campaigns
Political Science: Foreign
Political Science: Lobbyists & Pressure Groups
Political Science: Machiavelli
Political Science: Mill
Political Science: Political Theory
Political Science: U.S.
Psychology: Behaviorism
Psychology: Child & Adolescent
Psychology: Disorders
Psychology: Dreams
Psychology: Experimental
Psychology: Freud
Psychology: General
Psychology: Jung
Psychology: Physiology
Psychology: Piaget
Psychology: Rogers
Psychology: Social
Psychology: Testing
Psychology: Therapies
Public Administration: General
Public Administration: Government Agencies (Alphabetized)
Racism
Real Estate
Recreation & Leisure
Religion: Eastern
Religion: General
Religion: Islam
Religion: The Bible
Research: Completed Studies (With Statistics & Results)
Research: Designs & Proposals
Research: Statistics & Methodology
Russia: Pre-1917 Revolution
Science: Astronomy
Science: Biology
Science: General
Science: Genetics
Sociology: Durkheim
Sociology: General
Sociology: Marx
Sociology: Social Problems
Sociology: Social Theory
Sociology: Social Welfare
Sociology: Weber
Soviet Union: 1917-1990
Sports: Drugs
Sports: General
Technology
Transportation: Automotive
Transportation: Aviation
Transportation: General
Transportation: Railroads
Urban Studies
Vietnam
Women Studies
 

AGING.   Term Paper ID:22567 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Theories (social learning, life-stage, cognitive), adaptation, biology, research methods, ageism, special problems.... More...

12 Pages / 2700 Words 22 sources, 39 Citations, APA Format $48.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Theories (social learning, life-stage, cognitive), adaptation, biology, research methods, ageism, special problems. Paper Introduction: AGING: A LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This literature review addresses several issues related to the study of aging. Theoretical perspectives, research methods, and current controversies are reviewed. One issue that has beset the development of research on aging is a definition of old age (Scanzoni & Scanzoni, 1988, p. 549). Research in the United Kingdom and the United States has found that the older a person is in a chronological sense, the later is the chronological age at which that person tends to think old age begins. The concept of old age also is affected by social stratum: lower-status persons, as an example tend to think that old age begins in the fifties, while higher-status persons tend to think that old age begins around age 65. Advances in m Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Non-equilibrium systems theory. 187-2 ). Lerner, R. Ageism and social policy. Group memberships also tend todecline with age. The purpose of administeringthe instruments to the controls was to verify the test-retest effects ofthe three administrations of the two instruments. One desirable change in the methodology employed by Theriault (1994,pp. Life-span theory also is used to explain aging (Heckhausen & Schulz,1995, p. (1994). Most people, including psychologists and psychiatrists,however, tended to think of these individuals as just that--exceptions(Meer, 1986, pp. McDougall, G. Equally important, however,are (1) the identification of those factors that are associated directlywith increased levels of anxiety upon retirement and (2) the identificationof the other aspects of an individual's life that may be affected adverselyby increased levels of anxiety induced by the act of retirement. A critical review of research oncognitive function/impairment in older adults. The second category is comprised of an individual'sexpectancies about the probabilities of the responses by others to one'sown behaviors. When used to support stereotypes and prejudices, however, thesekernels of fact are often distorted, misinterpreted, or generalized in wayswhich promote unwarranted, unfair, and unacceptable attitudes and policiestoward the elderly, which yield outcomes which are highly detrimental totheir interests, and to the interests of society as a whole. Human equipment and behavior. 6-7). 187-2 ). The ecological approachto psychology is a functional approach. The process is particularly difficult for the elderlyperson being removed from her or his long standing way of life to be placedinto some institutional environment. Non-equilibrium systems theory (NEST) also is used as a means ofunderstanding aging (Porter, 1995, p. Social pressures and life conditions experienced by the aged mayresult in unique life styles, social roles, and interpersonal stresses(Matt & Dean, 1993, pp. Turner, J. 76-9 ; Meer, 1986, pp. References Achenbaum, W. Clinicalinterview evaluations also were performed for the experimentals at thesemeasurement times. Adaptation occurs through thefunctioning of the mental processes of assimilation and accommodation.Assimilation involves the perception and interpretation of new informationwithin the context of existing knowledge and understanding. The studyfindings also indicated that at a qualitative level observable changesoccurred in individual preoccupations, including thoughts of death, betweenpre-retirement and post-retirement periods. The study findings indicated that at a quantitative levelretirement triggers observable changes in anxiety levels. Awareness of the terms within which effective action must occuris perception. A person moves toward greatercomplexity through self-organization. Human growth and developmentthroughout life. Both the Institut deRecherches Psychologies Anxiety Scale (IPAT) and the Life SatisfactionIndex (LSI-A) were administered to the experimentals at each of the threeperiods--pre-retirement, intra-retirement, and post-retirement. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Institutionalizing elderly persons, as opposed toplacing them in independent housing, also tends to push the aged towardisolation, as opposed to social integration. The Gerontologist, 32(3), 318-326. 187-2 ). Finfgeld (1995, p. Pinter, R. Theoretical perspectives, research methods, and currentcontroversies are reviewed. Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. Adaptation tolife changes, thus, occurs in response to one's perception of thesurrounding environment and one's place within that environment. (Eds.). Effective verbal and non verbalcommunications skills have been found to enhance and elderly person's senseof control. B. Tornstam, L. (1991). 55 ). Becoming and beingcourageous in the chronically ill elderly. 76-9 ). Heikkinen, R-L. Further, these changes in both psychological andsocial aging frequently may be expected to occur over the short-termimmediately subsequent to the act of retirement. A life-span theory ofcontrol. Research in theUnited Kingdom and the United States has found that the older a person isin a chronological sense, the later is the chronological age at which thatperson tends to think old age begins. W. Further, newrelationships established by older adults often fail to equal the qualityof past relationships. Norton & Company. 155-157) is the extension of the data collection procedures andscope to not only measure variations in anxiety levels, but to measurequantitatively those factors that (1) are directly associated withdiffering levels of anxiety and (2) those factors that are affected bychanging levels of anxiety. First, alarger sample would strengthen the validity and the reliability of theresearch findings. (1993, Summer). (1995, April). Cognitive theory holds that extreme beliefs with respect to one's selfand one's interaction with one's environment are among the most importantof the cognitive phenomena leading to dysfunctional behavioral responses(McDougall, 1995, p. Journals of Gerontology: Series B,Psychological Sciences & Social Sciences, 5 B(2), S77-S87. (1992). An important conclusion drawn from thefindings of this research is that, as older people differ widelyphysically, socially, and psychologically, it is both unwise andimpractical to attempt to explain all aging with any single theory, as itis unwise to attempt to base research on aging on any single methodologicalapproach. Even the earlier studies, however, recognized thatdeterioration in learning capacity was highly individual. 187-2 ) examined the effects of support fromfriends on the psychological well being of elderly persons. In this approach, psychologicalproblems are construed as instances of adaptation. Cohen, G. 294-297). Thus, such experiences cannot be completely explained untilone's perception of the environment is known and understood. 24). 15-24), working with Freudian psychosexual theory as abasis, developed the psychosocial theory of human development. Maintaining middle age patterns, however, is often difficult (Matt &Dean, 1993, pp. (1986). M., & Humphrey, P. Aldershot, England: GowerPublishers. Within this context, threetypes of aging are involved. Issues in Mental Health Nursing,16(1), 1-11. Journal of Health andSocial Behavior, 34, 187-2 . E. In Phillipson, C., &Walker, A. (1992). J., & Herzog, A. Sugarman, L. 6 -64). Horn, J. Lifespan development. Quantitative data were analyzed through theapplication of analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedures. Cognitive phenomena employed by individuals in adapting to lifechanges are grouped into three categories (McDougall, 1995, pp. In fact, these contemporarystudies indicate that the capacity to learn is likely to diminish with ageonly if it is not used. Freud's developmental stages were oral,anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Lerner, 1991, pp. Thus,many among the growing numbers of older people lead increasingly lessrewarding lives. Aging often brings with it losses of centralsocial roles resulting from status changes in the arenas of marriage, work,family, income, health, and the like. (1982). One way to bridge the two cultures.Canadian Journal on Aging, 12(2), 143-156. In point of fact, older adults are capableof learning, and their capacities in this context are often as great as arethose of much younger persons (Horn & Meer, 1987, pp. The deaths of friends and spouses,together with mobility restrictions related to both health and income,continually reduce opportunities for social integration. Behaviorism emphasizes the critical significance of one's environmentto the overall development of the individual (Turner and Helms, 1991, p.8). J. Content analysiswas used to evaluate the data collected through the conduct of the clinicalinterviews. Sigmund Freudconsidered human development within the context of psychosexual development(Hill & Humphrey, 1992, pp. Biological aging is going to occur whether or not an individualretires (Garfein & Herzog, 1995, p. Contemporary studies, however, indicate that thecapacity to learn does not necessarily diminish with age (Horn & Meer,1987, pp. Men, women, and change. Basic beliefs are often learned early in life.Basic beliefs are used by individuals in the evaluation of life events.Thus, behavior will be evaluated in the context of one's basic beliefs. Psychological Review, 1 2(2), 284-3 4. 22). Theriault, J. Garfein, A. 23). Notable exceptions to the widely accepted beliefs that learning andcreative activity diminished with age have always existed (Tornstam, 1992,pp. 318-326). Psychology Today,21, 76-9 . Accommodationis a more advanced process that involves the restructuring of mentalorganization in order to include new information. ErikErikson (1982, pp. One issue that has beset the development of research on aging is adefinition of old age (Scanzoni & Scanzoni, 1988, p. The concept of old age also isaffected by social stratum: lower-status persons, as an example tend tothink that old age begins in the fifties, while higher-status persons tendto think that old age begins around age 65. One approach, genetic maturation, to the break thelife cycle into infancy, the Oedipal period, the juvenile period,adolescence, young adulthood, middle age, and old age. 155-157) is an expansion in the size of the research sample. (3rd ed.). Ageing and social policy. Both the IPAT and the LSI-A also were administered tothe controls at each of the three periods. It is a myth, as an example, that older persons are unable to learn(Tornstam, 1992, pp. 6 -64). (3rded.). Theriault's (1994, pp. Treating perception as a functionalcontext causes the concept to be an achievement, as opposed to being aprocess. S., & Helms, D. New York: Simon & Schuster, 22-34. R. L. (1992). 1) used grounded theory to study the presence ofcourage among the chronically ill elderly. Varioustheories of human development often tend to view people as either active orpassive in interactions with their environments (Cohen, 1987, p. Active concepts of human development, by contrast with passiveconcepts, hold that individuals are not passive beings, but, rather, arecapable of actively governing their own development An active concept ofhuman development is the cognitive development theory. Finfgeld, D. Nevertheless, a carefully designedexperimental study should be able to measure with some accuracy the effectsof such changes stemming from the transition from work to retirement. Meer, J. Robust aging among theyoung-old, old-old, and oldest-old. C., & Meer, J. Conclusion This literature review addressed several issues related to the studyof aging. In the development of adult groups, one of the major outcomes soughtis overcoming the resistance to change on the part of an individual (Matt &Dean, 1993, pp. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Thus, it is thoughtthat satisfactory social integration might be maintained to the extent thatmiddle age patterns are preserved in advancing age. Research Methods Theriault (1994, pp. Advances in medical science and technology have led to increased lifespans for an increasing proportion of the population; however, socialdevelopment has not kept pace (Scanzoni & Scanzoni, 1988, p. Apassive concept of human development is behaviorism (Sugarman, 1986, p.2 ). The age of reason. With respectto older adults, one assumption holds that people are well integrated intheir middle years, and become less so as they age. (1995, June). (1988). H. The life cycle completed: A review. 776-786). Over time, self-organizationproduces increasingly unique perceptions and behavior. Thus, adapting to life changes is a functionboth of a person's interpretation of an event, and her or his basic beliefsused in evaluating the event, regardless of the perceptual accuracy ofeither. 187-2 ). 22). (11th ed.). Matt and Dean (1993, pp. These changes would contribute to the generalknowledge of the nature of the transitions that individuals experience uponretirement. Further, the increasing numbers of persons in thepopulation aged 65 or older demand that research into aging develop methodsthat address the differences among age groupings within the 65 and overclassification. Journal ofGerontological Nursing, 21(6), 24-31. Erikson's psychosocial life-stages were oral-sensory, anal-musculature, genital-locomotor, latency, puberty and adolescence, youngadulthood, adulthood, and maturity (Lerner, 1991, pp. 11). 25). 31 -318). The origins of social learning theory lie in attempts to combinepsychoanalytic and stimulus-response theory into a comprehensiveexplanation of human behavior (Grusec, 1992, pp. The individualistic characteristic of the adaptationprocess hinders generalization. J. While great individual variation exists, many older people find itincreasingly difficult to maintain friendships, neighborhood ties, familyrelationships, and the like under the changing conditions of their lives(Matt & Dean, 1933, pp. 269-277). Scanzoni, L. Vertical experience implies that anenvironment permits a being to both live and reproduce. (1995, January-February). Through NEST, aging isperceived as a process of formative change toward increasing disorder andorder in form, pattern, and structure. As an example, asuperior intellect would be expected, "when he or she reached their mid-seventies, to remain "as intelligent as the average individual ever was"(Pinter, 1992, p. (4th ed.).New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. The individual likely has experienced, or isexperiencing, major changes in her or his life, and is likely resistingthese changes. There exist a number of protocols for dividing, or staging,the human life cycle. While participation and commitment by olderpeople in formal organizations, voluntary associations, and communityinvolvement tends to decrease with age, their social values tend to be morestable across the life span, and less susceptible to change through socialloss and social pressure. This definition of perception presupposes that experiencessuch as dreams, hallucinations, and imagination are derivative incharacter. New York:W. New York:Tavistock Publications. 284). There also is a subjective context to aging (Scanzoni & Scanzoni,1988, p. 28). Life-span development: Concepts, theories, andinterventions. 153-17 ) sought to validate the PsychosocialTransitions Model as a means of assessing and describing the work-to-retirement transitions experienced by individuals. Social change and the life course. (1986). M. Such expectancies influence one's behaviors, and also aresusceptible to systematic distortion. Hill, P. Concepts and theories of human development. (1986). Younger people tend to perceiving old age differently fromolder people, at a general level, and at a specific level all persons donot age in a uniform way. 549). Adaptation to life changes as one ages, thus, is a highlyindividual process. (1991). Thus, the development of effective communications skills inolder adults is one means of either minimizing the probability of onset, ormaximizing the probability of correction of depression. Adaptation enables an individual to understand the surroundingenvironment (McDougall, 1995, pp. New York: Random House. The vintage years. The presence, therefore, of peers in the livesof older people tends to provide a basis for shared values, which can leadto greater social integration. D., & Scanzoni, J. Suchautomatic thoughts related to events may be biased by systematicdistortions. This approach wasappropriate for the research objective; however, many sociologists questionthe reliability of qualitative methodologies (Achenbaum, 1993, pp. While changing life activitiesin the post-retirement period may exacerbate such biological aging, sucheffects typically will be subtle and will occur over an extended time.Both psychological and social aging, however, are susceptible tosusceptible to substantial change related to an individual's transitionfrom work to retirement. Ecological sciencedefines perception as an awareness of one's environment. S77). (1993). 23-24).The first category is comprised of an individual's stream of consciousnessthought and visual images that occur as responses to life events. Social learning theory and developmentalpsychology. Clinical interviewevaluations for the controls were performed for the controls only at thepost-retirement sessions. A second desirable change in the methodology followed by Theriault(1994, pp. International Journal of Aging and HumanDevelopment, 38(2), 153-17 . Early studies which tend to continue to be relied upon heavilyindicated that one's capacity to learn began to diminish in one's early-twenties (Pinter, 1992, p. Grusec, J. Theoretical Perspective All life-stage theories of human development are concerned with theaging process (Heikkinen, 1993, pp. 143-156). Psychology Today, 2 , 6 -64. The mean age of boththe experimentals and the controls was 65 years old. Erikson, E. E., & Dean, A. (1995, February). The third category of cognitivephenomena includes one's unrealistic and irrational beliefs about thenature of one's relationships both to others and to one's environment.Such irrational beliefs may result in dysfunctional behavioral responses. (1995, March). An assumption central to cognitive theory is that an individual'semotional and behavioral responses to events in one's life are greatlyinfluenced by one's own interpretations and evaluations of those events(McDougall, 1995, p. (1993, September). The focus in on abeing's vertical experience. Second, a larger sample size would facilitate theexpansion of the composition of the research sample to include substantialnumbers of persons from various socioeconomic classifications, as well assubstantial numbers of persons from a wider variety of occupationalclassifications. Consequently the importance of age peersin supplying sources of support and knowledge in social life is believed tobecome magnified in old age. Patterns of experienced aging with a Finnishcohort. AGING: A LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction This literature review addresses several issues related to the studyof aging. The quo vadis of gerontology: On the scientificparadigm of gerontology. (3rded.). Archives of PsychiatricNursing, 9(1), 22-33. Ifthese basic beliefs are unrealistic or irrational, one's expectancies willlikely also tend to be unrealistic and irrational. Awareness of the environment cannot be isolated from the environmentitself (McDougall, 1995, p. Adjustmentsare required by individuals in relation to each facet of the aging processin order to enhance the probability of their continued well-being. Townsend, P. (1992). Retirement as a psychosocial transition: Processand adaptation to change. 26-27). Matt, G. A. These studies contended generally that thecapacity to learn diminished by approximately one-half of one-percent peryear from the early-twenties through age 45, and that a truly steep declineset in at about age 55. These factors also influence the study of aging. 549). (1987). International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 36(4), 269-277. Social support from friendsand psychological distress among elderly persons. 153-17 ) findings were valuable because thefindings validated that changes related to increased anxiety levels occurwhen individuals move from work to retirement. An interview process was used,and the data were assessed on a qualitative basis. Erikson'sepigenetic principle led to the concept of psychosocial life-stages thattended to meld Freud's psychosexual stages with the genetic-maturationstages. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 776-786. A sample of 17experimentals and 22 controls were studied in an attempt to verify that pre-retirement, intra-retirement, and post-retirement periods differ within thecontext of the internal organization of individuals. Current Controversies Ageism, as is true of sexism or racism, is a denial of rights oropportunities to a specific group of people on the basis of acharacteristic over which individuals included within the group have nocontrol, and that has no bearing in most instances on their abilities tosuccessfully participate in and contribute to the activities from whichthey are excluded (Townsend, 1986, p. (1987). The environment isintegral to this definition of perception, because varieties of meaningfulexperience cannot be studied as instances of perception unless anenvironmental component is integral to the being studied. 318-326). Ageism is the product ofstereotypes and prejudices applied to older individuals in society. As istrue of most stereotypes and prejudices, there is often a kernel of factassociated with many of the stereotypes and prejudices associated with theelderly. Theoretical perspectives, research methods, and currentcontroversies are reviewed. Biological aging refers to the manner inwhich the body functions over time, while psychological aging involves theindividual's perceptions of the aging process, and social aging reflectsthe ways individuals relate aging their own unique society. Porter, E. 27). In Educationalpsychology. London: Metheun Publishers. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.