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ANIMAL EXTINCTIONS IN AUSTRALIA.   Term Paper ID:23202 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Impact of hunting by early humans (early Pleistocene) & environmental changes on megafauna population.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Impact of hunting by early humans (early Pleistocene) & environmental changes on megafauna population. Paper Introduction: Early Humans and the Megafaunal Extinctions of Australia Widespread extinctions began on the continent of Australia during the late Pleistocene. Many of the animals that disappeared were medium- to large-sized herbivores. Their demise may have resulted from early Homo sapien hunting activities. Apart from Antarctica, no other continent has fewer native terrestrial megafauna than Australia (Martin 376-397). During the late Pleistocene, only one genus and four species of terrestrial mammals over 44 kilograms survived. Most of those that became extinct were rather distinctive creatures (Scarre 44). The marsupial genera that disappeared, for example, had various oral specializations. These included the following: (1) Zaglossus (long spiny tongue); (2) Thylacoleo (large gape and short heavy jaws; (3) Phascolonus (strong mobile lips); (4) Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Most certainly,destruction of the moa habitat contributed to the animals' extinction. Even if megafauna were too large tocarry back to early human habitations, certainly parts of the animals--oreven young animals--could have been transported (Murray 623-625). Essentially, they maintain small fires which areconstantly lit. Another site where human artifacts occur in association with theremains of Pleistocene megafauna is known as Lime Springs. In addition to the lack of kill sites, there is also some ambiguityas to the exact time that the extinctions occurred. H.; Thorne, R., and Wright, R. Works CitedBowler, J. S. The Origin of the Australians. There has been considerable debate over whether Homo sapiens' arrivalin Australia was the direct cause of the megafauna extinctions. G. Science 2 (1978, June 2): 1 44-1 47.Gorecki, P. Forinstance, human remains discovered at Lake Mungo in Southeastern Australiahave been dated at approximately 28, B.P. R.; Stern, N., and Wright, R. An assortment of early human tools havebeen discovered (e.g., choppers and scrappers) (Bowler et al. The swamp contains a .2 meterthick bone bed located at a depth of about 1.5 meters. Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. Various techniques may have beenemployed to hunt the flightless birds. Archaeological investigations have likewise provided littleinformation on the exact methods by which early Homo sapiens actuallyhunted the Australian megafauna. These frequent, low-intensity fires result in a mosaic ofvegetation in different stages of regeneration (Flannery 45-55).Similarly, the first human inhabitants of Australia could have also usedfire. Those archaeological sitesthat provide evidence of Pleistocene fauna surviving beyond 3 , B.P. Onenotable feature of the animal types present on the continent during thePleistocene was the lack of carnivores: in fact, these animals were almostconspicuous by their absence. Clearly, the megafauna of Australia evolved in an environmentcontaining relatively few carnivores. M.; Jones, R.; Allen, H., and Thorne, A. Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1984: 376-397.Merrilees, D. Among these, the "moa" was a terrestrial bird that lived in theforest (Trotter & McCulloch 7 8-725). Apparently, recurrent drought had caused several large species togather around the swamp. Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. Furthermore, additional genera have become extinct during historictimes. V. "Extinctions Downunder." In Martin and Klein (eds.). During the Pleistocene, the area had an abundant supply ofwater. Such behavior would preclude theaccumulation of megafauna bones and human artifacts. "The 'African Eve' Theory in Light of Paleontological Evidence for the Outward Diffusion of Hominids." The Mankind Quarterly 34 (1994, Spring): 146-152.Flannery, T. Although faunal extinctionshave been identified prior to 35, B.P., studies such as Horton (198 )note that others may have occurred much later. Many of the animals that disappeared were medium- tolarge-sized herbivores. M., and Thorne, A. This bone bed hasproduced the remains of six extinct megafaunal species. (Bowler & Thorne 138). Australia's megafauna populations began to undergo dramatic changeupon the arrival of Homo sapiens. "Moas, Men, and Middens." In Martin and Klein (eds.). "Lancefield Swamp and the Extinction of the Australian Megafauna. Modern Australian Aborigines currently practice a formof firestick farming. Unfortunately though, the archaeological evidence has provided littlesupport for the overkill theory. The burning of forests on both of New Zealand's islands beganabout 1, years ago and accelerated to about 7 B.P. This periodclosely coincides with the disappearance of the moas. V. 1-3). At this site,flaked stone artifacts are found with fragments of bone and teeth (Goreckiet al. "Comings and Goings of Late Quaternary Mammals in Extreme Southwestern Australia." In Martin and Klein (eds.). Timelines of the Ancient World. Forexample, Horton and Wright (1981) believe that observed cuts on extinctmacropodid bone found at Lancefield resulted, not from human activity, butrather from scavengers. R.; Ladd, P.; Rich, T. Humans first appeared in Australiaduring the late Paleolithic (Chiarelli 151). They might, therefore, have consumed largegame right where it was killed. S. "Pleistocene Faunal Loss: Implications of the Aftershock for Australia's Past and Future." Archeology In Oceania 25 (199 ): 45-55.Gillespie, R.; Horton, D. Moreover, thestratigraphy is datable; it has been determined to be about 26, yearsold. (eds.). Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1984: 7 8-725.----------------------- 9 Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1984: 611-617.Moser, S. Such influences would probably includehunting, climatic changes, as well as other variables. Unfortunately though,not all of the Pleistocene extinctions involved large animals that weredifficult to carry. F. "Prehistoric Overkill: The Global Model." In Martin and Klein (eds.). Other hypotheses with regard to early hunting practices haveattempted to explain the lack of megafauna remains. 1-3). New Jersey: Humanities Press Inc., 1976: 127-138.Chiarelli, Brunetto. "Pleistocene Human Remains From Australia: A Living Site and Human Cremation From Lake Mungo, Western New South Wales." World Archaeology 2 (197 ): 39-59.Bowler, J. Overall, the LimeSprings evidence suggests that the overall process by which the megafaunadisappeared may have been quite complex (Gorecki et al. Thebirds' plight, therefore, provides a Recent parallel to Australia's latePleistocene megafaunal extinctions (Trotter & McCulloch 7 8-725). For example, Pleistocene kill sitesdiscovered thus far in Australia have provided little biological data. The marsupial genera thatdisappeared, for example, had various oral specializations. However, the extinctions might have additionally been influencedby other variables. Therefore, the large Australian herbivoresdid not, for the most part, coevolve with an array of predators. New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley, 1993.Trotter, M. Infact, paleontologists have noted that, in general, an "effective newinvader need not overlap in the fossil record with the species it replaces(Martin 376-397)." Thus, vulnerable and previously unhunted prey mighthave been quickly destroyed by the very first human invaders. The arrival of the potent predator,Homo sapiens, on the continent's shores certainly brought about dramaticchanges. Early Humans and the Megafaunal Extinctions of Australia Widespread extinctions began on the continent of Australia during thelate Pleistocene. Within roughly 5 years of thefirst Polynesians' arrival, however, some 3 -4 bird species becameextinct. Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. Despite evidence recovered from the Lancefield Swamp and Lime Springsites, various researchers still defend mass extinction ideas. This region did not become inhabited by Homosapiens until about a 1, years ago. "Coexistence of Humans and Megafauna in Australia: Improved Stratified Evidence." Archeology In Oceania 19 (1984): 117-119.Martin, P. In addition, Homo sapien invaders may have employedfire as a weapon. They suggest thathumans and megafauna coexisted for roughly 7, years (Gillespie et al.1 44-1 47). Most of those that became extinct wererather distinctive creatures (Scarre 44). These have included the Tasmanian wolf, Thylacinus, the pig-footedbandicot, Chaeropus, and others (Martin 376-397). G. Some researchers note that the lack of observed megafauna kill sitesmay result from a "blitzkrieg" type of mass extinction (Martin 376-397).This would involve hunting of such high intensity that there would belittle association between the first human invaders and their prey. Therefore, they may have resulted through somecombination of different factors. 1 44-1 47)."Although there are rare exceptions, most of the bones found in associationwith human occupation have belonged to living species (Martin 376-397). S. Apart from Antarctica, no other continent hasfewer native terrestrial megafauna than Australia (Martin 376-397). It hasbeen suggested that humans may have used the swamp to ambush their prey.Indeed, large quartzite blades have been found embedded in the bone bed.Such observations would refute the overkill hypothesis. 1 44-1 47). Researchers have postulated thatearly humans might have drove them into swamps, rounded them up with dogs,or trapped them in pits (Trotter & McCulloch 7 8-725)." Considerableevidence additionally suggests that the human invaders used fire forhunting. G. Perhaps thebest association of megafauna and dated materials occurs at a site known asthe Lancefield Swamp (Flannery 45-55). Factors such as climatic variability and foodavailability--in addition to predation--might have further contributed tothe animals' demise. Instead, early Australian hunterscould have been highly nomadic. By approximately 3 , yearsago, thriving communities had already been established (Moser 1-9). These includedthe following: (1) Zaglossus (long spiny tongue); (2) Thylacoleo (largegape and short heavy jaws; (3) Phascolonus (strong mobile lips); (4)Phascolarctos (small mouth, short snout, long tongue, and deep mandible;(5) Palorchestes (trunk); (6) Zygomaturus (projecting upper lip); (7)Diprotodon (trunk-like upper lip); (8) Propleopus (long beak-likestructure); (9) Protemnodon (long beak-like structure; (1 ) Macropus (longbeak-like structure); (11) Sthenurus (deep mandible); and (12) Procoptodon(short beak-like structure and deep mandible) (Merrilees 61; Martin 376-397). In Martin and Klein (eds.). Moreover, such reasoning can not explain the completeabsence of archaeological evidence. Forced to remain near their permanent supply ofwater, the animals quickly ate all the available food and perished. 4 -58).Stumpy, ponderous animals such as giant wombats and kangaroos would havebeen easily pursued. Clearly then, the Pleistocenemegafaunal extinctions did not occur simultaneously across the entireAustralian continent. "Visions of the Australian Pleistocene: Prehistoric Life at Lake Mungo and Kutikina." Australian Archaeology: 1-9.Murray, P. As aresult, these animals tended to be good sprinters, but poor long distancerunners. Duringthe late Pleistocene, only one genus and four species of terrestrialmammals over 44 kilograms survived. "Human Remains From Lake Mungo: Discovery and Excavation of Lake Mungo III." In Kirk, R. Nosingle site has yet been found that satisfactorily shows a "prolongedoverlap of humans and classic megafauna (Gillespie et al. Moreover, the archaeological evidence suggests that megafaunasurvived there until about 19,3 B.P. Obviously, they would have been easy prey for early humanhunters. Researchers havepostulated that, because of Australia's congenial climate, early humans maynot have permanently inhabited caves. Such facts have given rise to an "overkill hypothesis." Certainresearchers believe that rampant overhunting by humans resulted in themegafauna extinctions (Martin 376-397). Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution. As Bowdler (1977) maintains, "In Australia we havean overkill hypothesis, but we are still waiting for a kill site (Martin379)." One more recent example of blitzkrieg-type extinctions occurred onthe islands of New Zealand. Their demise may have resulted from early Homosapien hunting activities. A shortage of clearstratification and radiocarbon dates has given rise to an array ofextinction dates (Gillespie et al. Forest fires may have forced medium- and large-sized herbivores toforage in increasingly more exposed areas. P.; Horton, D. L., and Thorne, A. areall, for the most part, located in southeastern Australia. This would have made them morevulnerable to Homo sapien hunters. M., and McCulloch, B. Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1984: 623-625.Scarre, C. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.