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HOMOSEXUALITY.   Term Paper ID:23685 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines causes, theories (genetic, biological, psychobehavioral, bioenvironmental), research, hormones, sex-role socialization, family influences.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines causes, theories (genetic, biological, psychobehavioral, bioenvironmental), research, hormones, sex-role socialization, family influences. Paper Introduction: ABSTRACT This paper examined the etiology of homosexual preference. In this regard, the paper examined genetic theories, biological theories, and psychobehavioral theories of the causes and contributors to homosexuality. It was concluded that, in general, there is insufficient evidence to support any one theoretical perspective. It was further concluded that it was likely that the most valid theoretical perspective would be one that presented a multiply-determine perspective. Introduction Over the last decade there has been a good deal of research examining for determinants and contributors to homosexual preference (See: Allgeier & Allgeier, 1994; Sue, Sue & Sue, 1994; Gonsiorek, 1990; Muehrer, 1995; Schmidt & Clement, 1995). The Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Specifically, 5 8 psychiatrists were surveyed as totheir expert opinions and attitudes with regard to the causes and nature ofmale homosexuality; psychiatrists were randomly selected form members ofthe American Psychiatric Association. Because of this, some authors have suggested that most of thisresearch is neither scientific or ethical. (1993). These studiesare said to suffer from numerous methodological problems which may be whythe studies as a whole do not support a causal relationship betweenpostnatal hormone levels and sexual orientation. (Doctoral Dissertation, TheWright Institute) Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(4-B), p. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,19(2), 343-348. 734.(Microfilm Order No. Another way of saying this is that understanding human sexualityis the way to discover why it is that some people prefer one sex overanother. Identity formation for lesbian, bisexual, andgay persons: Beyond a 'minoritizing' view. A critique of the possibility of geneticinheritance of homosexual orientation. Doell, R.G.(1995). al (1993), the findings of the surveyrevealed a preponderance of support for biological rather thanpsychological causes. Sue, D., Sue, D. (5th ed.) NY: Holt,Rinehart and Winston. (p. & Fujitani, K. The etiology of male homosexuality. Haynes, J.D. However, Paul (1993) points out that the research on prehomosexualpatterns suffers from several problems that make it difficult toconfidently associate gender identity and/or gender role with homosexualpreference. In this process, four phenotypic dimensions of sexuality are saidto develop from two more or less distinct sex genotypes. One final conclusion regarding the study concerns the fact thatseveral authors suggested that the research on homosexual preference is not"clean," which is to say that often it is motivated by sociopoliticalreasons (on both sides of the political spectrum) rather than scientificreasons. (1994). In this regard, the authors noted that early studies in thearea focused on hormone measurements in adult men and women. (1996). ThirdInternational Behavioral Neuroscience Conference Satellite Symposium:Hormonal and neural modulation of physiological and behavioral function(1994, Clearwater Beach, Florida). 91) However, Haynes (1995) goes on to note that other studies,particularly those concerned with the evolution of human sexuality, do notsupport genetic inheritance or contribution. In summary then, the findings of studies testing biological theoriesof homosexual preference, like the genetic theories, are mixed. Therefore, the essentialists' search for asimple congruence between physiological or biological traits andhomosexuality must be expected to fail. MedicalHypotheses, 46(2), 85-88. (1995). Special Issue: Sex, cell, and same-sex desire: Thebiology of sexual preference: II. Does peace prevent homosexuality?Journal of Homosexuality, 28(3-4), 269-275. Eliason (1996) has stated that some behavioral/psychological theoriesof homosexual preference describe this preference as related toindividual's sense of sexual identity, e.g., as a straight, gay, lesbian orbisexual person. To provide such input, King (198 )examined the etiological perceptions of homosexuality in samples ofhomosexual males, and their family members. Lesbians' sexual preference: The meaning of theorigins question in the lives of gay women. Claims of biogenetic contribution have been both confirmed anddenied in a variety of studies (Yamamoto, Ito & Fujitani, 1996: Roper,1996: Lee & Hampson, 1994). Muehrer, P. Findings also showed that the homosexuals who said they were bornhomosexual or became homosexual early in life appeared to have come toterms with their sexuality and to function quite well as adults. 1299.(Microfilm Order No. (1988). Sexuality,Bermant states, emerges from the interdependencies of biology, awareness,and the facts and artifacts of public life. Based on this repeated call for unambiguous and non-politically motivated research, it seems reasonable to conclude that thisissue must be addressed before strong confidence can be placed in thegeneral research on the causes of homosexuality as a whole. A third conclusion that can be formulated based on the reviewconcerns the type of models that have been formulated. & Ames, M.A. Understanding abnormal behavior(4th ed.) Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. The etiology of homosexuality as related tochildhood experiences and adult adjustment: A study of the perceptions ofhomosexual males, their parents, and siblings. NOTE TO CLIENT Please be aware that while most of the reviewed studies were no morethan eight years old--as you requested--I was unable to find sufficientstudies that were directly pertinent to the topic within the eight yearlimitation. & Hampson, D.J. Neuroscience Research, 26(2), 95-1 7. Such childhood cross-genderbehavior in boys is commonly referred to as part of a "prehomosexual"configuration. Scientists, he states,are not immune from this influence and as a result, methodologies are poorand reported findings often slanted in the direction of the particularhierarchy involved in the research. Paul, J.P. Schuklenk, U. According to Gallagher et. Further, studies of menand women who experienced prenatal defects in hormone metabolism have notfound a concurrent increase in homosexual behavior. The participants'explanations of why they are gay and the role of the origins question intheir lives. PsychologicalBulletin, 1 1(2), 233-258. (1995). ABSTRACT This paper examined the etiology of homosexual preference. Introduction Over the last decade there has been a good deal of research examiningfor determinants and contributors to homosexual preference (See: Allgeier &Allgeier, 1994; Sue, Sue & Sue, 1994; Gonsiorek, 199 ; Muehrer, 1995;Schmidt & Clement, 1995). It seems reasonable to state that the existing research might berendered more comprehensible if some work were done to categorize thesestudies by the terms they used in relation to sexual orientation and howthese terms were operationalized. Following a historical sketch of attempts to explain homosexuality,Ellis and Ames (1988) reviewed evidence indicating that the process ofdetermining human sexual orientation is fundamentally the same in allmammals. Banks and Gartrell (1995) reviewed research exploring for a possiblecausal relationship between sex hormones and the development of sexualorientation. The second hypothesis was that historically deterministic,pathological "causes" of lesbianism, (i.e., incestuous, forbidden orproblematic experiences and negative intimate relationships with men) are,for some women, neutralized and transformed into acceptable "reasons" forthe development of lesbian sexual preference, a perspective which points toa means for eventually logizng homosexuality. Banks, A. 343) Like Doell (1995), Bermant (1995) also decries the politicizing ofthe subject, noting that these active political and legal disputes abouthomosexuality exemplify a continuing reliance on reductionistic models ofthe causes of conduct. (Doctoral Dissertation,Indiana University) Dissertation Abstracts International, 41(2-B), p. Instead, Bermant states that what is needed is anexplanative model that examines sexuality in general and does so using amultidimensional framework consisting of psychological, biogenetic,sociodemographic and other contributors. Homosexual Preference: Causes and Contributors Theories of the causes of homosexual preference can be divided intothree broad categories: (1) studies examining for genetic contributions;(2) studies examining for biological contributions; and (3) studiesexamining for psychological contributions. Neurohormonal functioning and sexualorientation: A theory of homosexuality-heterosexuality. What is needed first, is to know what makes people sexually attractedto some and not others---a phenomenon common to all people, both gay andstraight. In an effort to answer thisquestion, Haynes (1995) conducted a comprehensive review of the literatureon genetic theories of sexual behavior and the causes of sexualorientation. Conducted interviews focused on interviewees' thoughts and feelingsabout their homosexual and heterosexual relationships. Roper, W.G. (1995). (1995). (1994). Data consisted of 8 of the larger study's 528 questions asked of thehomosexuals in face-to-face interviews, and 52 of the larger study's 316questions asked of the homosexuals' family members in mailedquestionnaires. Data analyses were said to have yielded a diverse range of findingswhich generated two major theoretical hypotheses. Lee, J.I. Gallagher, B.J., McFalls, J.A. Childhood cross-gender behavior and adulthomosexuality: The resurgence of biological models of sexuality. Each category of thesecategories of research is discussed below.Genetic Causes/Contributors Is homosexual orientation genetic? (1993). Unfortunately, the physical versus mental and nature versus nurture controversies remain alive, well, and mischievous in regard to the correct understanding of human sexuality. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 3 (3-4), 1-3. Blum, A.C. There have also been problems in terms of efforts to measure theestrogen feedback as an indication of brain androgenization; specifically,such studies have produced inconsistent results. (1995). Journal of Homosexuality,28(1-2), 91-113. (1996). Paul (1993) argues that any potential biological factors contributingto sexual orientation must be mediated by a complex sequence of experiencesand psychosocial factors. The overallsample, therefore, consisted of 6 homosexual males, 11 fathers, 29mothers, 22 brothers, and 41 sisters. Genetic characterisation ofintestinal spirochaetes and their association with disease. According to Bermant (1995), it is time for people to realize,particularly scientists, that both dualistic and reductionistic models aretraps that bar real scientific understanding and progress regardinghomosexual preference. The second conclusion that can be formulated based on the presentedreview of the current literature is that to the extent that there arecauses of homosexual preference, these causes have yet to be determined--this because no one model was associated with strong levels of support forit as an explanative framework. & Vreeland, C.N. Related to Blum's (1983) study is a slightly earlier one conducted byKing (198 ) who reports that collecting perceptual data from homosexuals(as well as those close to them) has also too often been a neglected areaof input into etiological models. As he puts it: A useful metaphor is that correct accountings of sexuality are not one-finger melodies, rather they are chords. (1996). The paper ends with a series ofconclusions about causal factors and other contributors to homosexualityformulated on the basis of the reviewed studies. According to Ellis and Ames(1988), these contributors and determinants can be used to specify how theentire spectrum of human sexual orientation, and not just homosexuality, isdetermined. & Ristow, M. Ellis, L. It is suggested that a more comprehensivecyclical model of identity development would put sexual identity into acontext that includes other important facets of identity such as gender,race, and class---a more universalizing approach. Nonetheless, attempts togeneralize the causes of sexual orientation from animals to humans havebeen controversial. Journal ofHomosexuality, 24(3-4), 41-51. Also, Eliason (1996) feels that many of these studies tend to"minoritize" sexual identities. (199 ). King, W.M. Journal ofHomosexuality, 28(3-4), 345-354. Doell (1995) reports that almost all theories of the biological"causes" of homosexuality focus primarily upon the hypothesis that hormonalinfluences during fetal life "organize" certain parts of the brain whichthus become centers for sexual orientation and behavior later in life.While this may be true, Doell goes on to note that there is little existingevidence for the operation of such centers and emphasizes alternativescenarios for the development of sexual orientation and behavior. Studies are reviewed by the authors which indicated how phenotypicdeviations from these two genotypes (called sexual inversions) can occur.Based on the findings of these studies, the causes of sexual inversions arecategorized as genetic-hormonal, pharmacological, maternal stress,immunological, and social experiential. & Sue, S. Haynes states that one reasonwhy findings are mixed may be related to certain difficulties and problemsinvolved with construction genetic models. Gonsiorek, J.C. Blum (1982) has conducted research into the origins of lesbians'sexual preference by conducting a comprehensive review of the existingetiological and relational literature related to homosexual preference andby conducting in-depth interviews with 2 lesbians. & Clement, U. In other words, it is concluded here that to segment homosexualpreference into its own separate category and then try to explain thebehavior is probably too limited a focus to provide a full and completeunderstanding of what makes people sexually attracted to people of the samesex. (Paper presented at the AnnualConvention of the American Psychological Association (98th, Boston, MA,August 1 -14, 199 ). Sexuality in the brain. The study of personality. In summary then, comprehensive reviews of empirical tests of thegenetic models of homosexual preference reveal, at best, mixed support.Also revealed, is the fact that a good deal of this research suffers frommethodological problems, making it difficult to put strong confidence inboth supportive and non-supportive findings of genetic determinants and/orcontributions to homosexual preference.Biological Models Are biological (biogenetic) factors involved in homosexualpreference? (1982). Such findings leadBanks and Gartrell (1995) to the conclusion that while there may be somesupport for a biological theory here and there, if the data are examinedoverall, they do not support a causal connection between hormones and humansexual orientation. In the reviews of this literature that were examined in thisreport it was repeatedly noted that these studies often suffered frommethodological flaws such as failure to use a standardized terminology andoperationalization of terms relating to sexual orientation. However, it is stated that while this theory isinteresting, Eliason's comprehensive review of the literature revealed manymajor limitations of the research investigating the validity of thistheory. (1996). In most cases, thedeveloped theories attempted to explain homosexual preference solely.However, the research of Ellis and Ames (1988)--as well as Bermant (1995)--presented strong arguments in favor of the fact that perhaps the bestetiological model of homosexual preference will be a model that explainshuman sexual orientation in general. This same point has been made by manyother researchers investigating the etiology of homosexuality (Babladelis,1995). (p. Suicide and sexual orientaiton: A critial summaryof recent research and directions for future research. These causes include: geneticcontribution, prehormonal influences, stresses related to negative intimaterelationships or other factors, dominant mother/weak father hypotheses (toexplain male homosexuality), disturbed gender identity or gender role, andthe relative contributions by a number of other psychosocial factors suchas socioeconomic status, age, etc. Conclusions The first conclusion that can be formulated based on the justexamined research is that varied and multiple causes have been postulatedand tested to explain homosexual preference. As he puts it, there are hierarchies of political power whichare attempting to influence such research, in some cases for positivefindings and in other cases for negative findings. Therefore, I included two studies that were a little olderthan eight years.----------------------- 1 He notes that, recently, attempts have been made to link cross-genderbehavior among boys with adult homosexuality, and that this researchpresumes a common biological determinant to both the childhood behaviorpatterns and homosexuality in adulthood. & allgeier, A.R. Heath. Babladelis, G. Psychological and ethical implications ofcausal theories of sexual orientation. (198 ). Studies of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, some of whom have been reared separately and some together, suggest that there may be an inherited component of homosexuality. Based on his review of this research, it was concluded that: No one theory has proved to be satisfactory. Specifically, genetic inheritance theory receivedthe highest ranking followed by prenatal hormone development theory. Withrespect to the foregoing, Doell (1995) reports that one of the problems inconducting sound research into the biology of homosexual preference ispolitical. The most major of these problems are said to be: (1) a failure to differentiate such concepts as gender identity,gender role and sexual orientation, (2) a reliance upon potentially inappropriate dichotomies indescribing such concepts, (3) problematic interpretations of research that makes fewdistinctions between human sexual behavior and sexual behavior amongrodents, and (4) the contradictions implicit in seeking simple biologicaldeterminants of constructs (such as cross-gender behavior) that areculturally determined. The first was thatsignificant "reasons" for the development of lesbianism are found in thesex-role socialization of women and men and in women's struggles to achievea full sense of selfhood within their sexual/emotional relationships.Issues of power, roles, communication, identification and intimacy emergedas central to the origins of lesbianism. Special Issue: Sex, cells, and same-sex desire: The biology of sexual preference: I. Journal of Homosexuality, 3 (3),31-58. Preliminaryresults from a national survey of psychiatrists concerning the etiology ofmale homosexuality. The purpose of this paper is to examine thecurrent research on this topic. For example, Schuklenk and Ristow (1996), following a brief overviewon the current state of the art of biomedical research on homosexuality,concluded that the cause(s) of homosexuality is (are) unknown and thatbiomedical research has failed to provide evidence for a possible causationof homosexuality. The point is made thatmost theoretical frameworks attempting to explain homosexual preference inrelation to women fails to address the intentionality, mutability andvariability of lesbians' sexual preference. However, members of their family generally did not replicate thecauses which had been cited their family member's homosexuality; however,their descriptions of the respondents' childhood and adolescent years weresimilar to the descriptions given by the homosexuals themselves.Interestingly, it was also found that homosexuals' stated causes of theirhomosexuality appeared positively related to their amount of exposure topsychotherapy, and to their adult psychological adjustment. The ethics of research into thecause(s) of homosexuality. Difficulties with genetic models of sexual orientation are said toinvolve specifying the ways in which a gene favoring a homosexualorientation but not reproduction could continue to exist in a population.Other difficulties said to be leading to mixed findings are differences inthe ways diverse studies define terms that refer to sexual orientation; theneed for precise, and perhaps standardized definitions, is said to beimportant in terms of determining exactly what may be inherited. Yamamoto, D., Ito, H. Findings of the study revealed that about one half of thegay men in the sample mentioned that their fathers had contributed to theirhomosexuality by having been distant-absent or hostile-rejecting, and two-thirds mentioned that one or both parents had contributed to theirhomosexuality. To speak in chords about sexuality. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 25, 72-81. It can also be concluded that the existingresearch supports the notion that the likelihood is strong thatreductionist models, such as genetic or biological models, areinsufficiently broad to adequately capture the multiply-determined natureof homosexual preference. Special Issue: Sex, cell,and same-sex desire: The biology of sexual preference: II. In this way, the research might not onlybe more easily understandable but might also serve as a firmer foundationor framework for future studies. Similarly,these studies also suffer from poor methodology and from problems relatedto the sociopolitical nature of the topic.BioEnvironmental and Other Multiple Models According to Bermant (1995), one of the main reasons that biogeneticmodels have failed to find fully supportive findings for their studies ofthe causes of sexual preference, especially homosexual preference, is thatthe models are unidimensional rather than multidimensional. Thesehomosexuals and those who said they did not know why they were homosexualreported a less troubled childhood in terms of both their familial andsocial relationships and, as adults, appear better psychologically thanthose who reported childhood isolation, disturbed relationships with theirparents, negative heterosexual experiences, or identification with theirmothers as causes of their homosexuality. Thenotions that male homosexuality stems from a dominant mother and/or a weakfather were ranked highest of all psychological theories although they onlyplaced fifth and sixth respectively among the twelve psychologicalperspectives evaluated. Hormones and sexual orientation: Aquestionable link. & Gartrell, N.K. Genetic dissection ofsexual orientation: Behavioral, cellular, and molecular approaches inDrosophila melanogaster. Bermant, G. In thisregard, the paper examined genetic theories, biological theories, andpsychobehavioral theories of the causes and contributors to homosexuality.It was concluded that, in general, there is insufficient evidence tosupport any one theoretical perspective. Journal of Homosexuality, 28(3-4), 247-268. Journal ofMedical Microbiology, 4 (5), 365-371. AAD82-2 792). AAD8 -16685). More recently, Banks and Gartrell (1995) report, a new theorypostulating prenatal hormone levels as producing varying degrees of brainandrogenization and subsequent dimorphic sex role behavior has consistentlybeen supported by studies in lower mammals. Indeed, the authors state that it is not really clearwhether research into the cause(s) of homosexuality should be done at alldue to the ethical conflicts regarding the motivations of many conductingsuch studies. References Allgeier, E.R. Schmidt, G. Paul (1993) reports that research on the causes of homosexualityfrequently treat it as a matter of disturbed gender identity and/or genderrole. A final conclusion of the study concerns the genetic and biologicalresearch. Sexual Interactions (3rd ed.)Lexignton, MASS: D.C. (1995). The major limitations of these studies were said to include: theirnarrow samples, their narrow focus on sexuality, their linear nature, andtheir lack of attention to the larger sociohistorical context. He notes that part of the problem is in differingviews of how the brain relates to behavior, and asserts that discourserelying on public misapprehension about biological causality can alter thecourse of subsequent science and public opinion and thus affect personalexperience as well. In an effort to examine homosexual preference from a bioenvironmentalperspective, Gallagher, McFalls and Vreeland (1993) assessed the currentthinking of mental health professionals on the etiology of homosexualsexual orientation. Data collected in the study were part of a larger study conducted bythe Institute for Sex Research of Indiana University and funded by NIMH.Of the 575 white homosexual males in the Institute's study, 6 had parentsand/or siblings who volunteered to participate in the survey. Eliason, M.J. (1994). Journal of Homosexuality, 31(3), 5-3 . It was further concluded that itwas likely that the most valid theoretical perspective would be one thatpresented a multiply-determine perspective. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.