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MAIMONIDES.   Term Paper ID:24937 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Life, career, theology, writings of 12th cent. Jewish philosopher.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Life, career, theology, writings of 12th cent. Jewish philosopher. Paper Introduction: Moses ben Maimon, known as Maimonides, was a twelfth-century Jewish philosopher who was heavily influenced by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In his most famous work, The Guide of the Perplexed, Maimonides attempted to explain various difficult aspects of the Jewish tradition of rabbinic and biblical literature by means of philosophic method derived from Aristotle. Maimonides was convinced that there was truth in both the Jewish tradition and the rationalism of Aristotle and his work was, in part, a reconciliation of these two kinds of truth. An examination of one of the main topics in the Guide, the nature of prophecy, demonstrates how Maimonides went about applying the rational Aristotelian approach to questions of Jewish theology. Maimonides (1135-1204) was born in the Spanish city of Cordova but, in order to avoid the wars in the region, migrated Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Yet Maimonides begins with certain givens that arenot challenged. Therevelations in sacred writings are, basically, a description of the overallsystem of creation and the science of Aristotle is merely an aspect of thatcreation. . [17]Ibid., 36 . And the mysteries ofMaimonides' own chosen profession of medicine were so great, and seemed tosuggest so many supernatural elements in the makeup of human beings, thathis thinking was incapable of providing for sufficient distance between thesubsystems of creation and the creator to see how, in the overall picture,such subsystems could possess an internal logic that did not conflict withthat of the larger system--but did not necessarily mirror it. [2]Ibid., 274. Instead he seems to have been motivated by a genuine desire todemonstrate that human reasoning, as one of God's outstanding creations,must be capable of reconciliation with God's revealed word. A Maimonides Reader. Maimonides was convinced that there was truth in both theJewish tradition and the rationalism of Aristotle and his work was, inpart, a reconciliation of these two kinds of truth. [21]Ibid., 376. An examination of oneof the main topics in the Guide, the nature of prophecy, demonstrates howMaimonides went about applying the rational Aristotelian approach toquestions of Jewish theology. But he is also able to point up a distinguishingfactor between them. IsadoreTwersky (New York: Behrman, 1972), 2 . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.---. What he wants to demonstrate, however, is that human reason inits highest form (i.e., the science of Aristotle) can and must be capableof supporting the revealed truth of God. Ed. He would havebeen better off, however, relegating the science of Aristotle to the realmof the natural. This, in turn, leads to the discussion of the qualities of a prophet. These scholars favored the materialatomism of the Greek philosopher Democritus and regarded Aristotle's worksas "a threat to religious faith" because of his over-reliance on reason.[6] The method of the Mutakallimum, which provided the paradigm for bothIslamic and Jewish philosophy from the early eighth to the late ninthcenturies, placed little value on the ability of philosophy (based on humanreason) to aide in the defense of the faith which, in both religions, wasthe revealed word of God. He begins, for example, by assertingthat there are four basic approaches to the question of prophecy. Thus there is no possibility that theycould attain the same level of prophecy as Moses. "Thus in a comparison with a temperament whosecomposition is of the greatest equibalance possible in the species inquestion, all other temperaments are not composed in accordance with thisequibalance because of either excess or deficiency."[16] There nothing,however, in the proposition about a thing being as near perfect as possiblethat precludes the existence of a second thing that also achieves theidentical level of perfection. The poor reasoning attacked by Maimonides was that employed byadherents of the Kalam, the system employed by the Mutakallimum, the firstmajor school of Islamic theology. In Judaism, forexample, God acted directly in history. Thus,for example, he argues that the prophecy of Moses is different in qualityfrom that of other prophets and that the Law conveyed by Moses is the onlylaw that ever was or ever will be. The otherprophets, he notes, "taught the people through being instructors, teachers,and guides" but they did not say, as Moses did, "The Lord said to me: Speakto the sons of so and so."[14] Thus, on the evidence of the holy writings,these prophets could not be the same as Moses. Samuelson, "Medieval Jewish Philosophy," Back to theSource: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, ed. Instead hebegins with an instance of a person who was trained and yet was de-selected, as it were, by God. The logic of thisdistinction is one of the principal points that Maimonides makes in hisdiscussion of prophecy in the Guide. But even if one acceptshis premises, as his readers would have, that the Law of Moses is unique,perfect, and the directly revealed word of God, his logical supports arequite faulty. The same could be said of Aristotle's works if they were tobe subjected to the Jewish theological system. New York: Behrman, 1972. [13]Samuelson, 276. The Guide of the Perplexed. The chapters on prophecy (32-48) are from this buriedsection of the text and, because of the use of Aristotelian method, arelaid out in a relatively clear and logical format. This is the essential problem with many of Maimonides'demonstrations; that they do not do what he intended. In this capacity Maimonides "gained his reputation asone of the great masters of Jewish law (halakhah)."[1] As nagid Maimonides wrote his important Commentary on the Mishnahand corresponded on difficult questions that perplexed his friend RabbiJoseph ibn Aknin. There are no page numbers given in this Bib entry for the same reason.----------------------- [1]Norbert M. He does not, for instance, offer any specific description of thequalities that a prophet must possess or is trained to develop. There was little distance betweenhim and his creation, and prophecy is a good example of this since, asMaimonides' chapters show, the qualities of prophecy are all about thedistance between God and the particular prophet. These fundamentals ofJudaism were divided into those that dealt with the nature of God, thoseconcerning reward and punishment, and four principles related to the Law:"prophecy, uniqueness of Mosaic prophecy, divine origin of the Written andOral Law, and the eternity and immutability of the Law."[9] In the sixthfundamental principle, dealing with prophecy, Maimonides explained thatthose who were capable of prophecy (and many prophets were named in theBible) were "people so gifted and perfected that they can receive pureintellectual form."[1 ] Yet, no matter how perfected these individuals maybe, it is still a mere human function, the intellect, that is raised tothis state. Holtz. Once it is exposed to a system, such as the logic of Aristotle,it cannot sustain itself because it does not meet the basic requirement ofthat system. Barry W. After this Maimonides abandoned the business and began to practicemedicine. The same holds true for the argument thatthere cannot be more than one thing in a species that is of the greatestequibalance possible. Moses was chosen by God to convey the Lawand, therefore, "surpassed the normal human condition and attained theangelic."[11] Maimonides makes the distinction between ordinary humanprophecy and that of Moses clear. His strategiesranged from deliberately contradicting himself (contradictions that theinitiated could disentangle) to placing the philosophic discussions on themiddle of the text--to which point the unprepared reader would probablynever penetrate. But their knowledge of philosophy and science was slight comparedto their rabbinic knowledge, and in Maimonides' opinion this "lack ofknowledge [was] a major reason for Rabbi Joseph's perplexity."[3] Thus, in the Guide, Maimonides dealt with the "raw material" of"knotty, often disconcerting passages from Biblical and rabbinicliterature" which he "aligned with concepts and images drawn fromphilosophic and scientific literature."[4] Maimonides' conclusions aboutreligious topics were not at all heterodox and differed little from thoseof most of his predecessors. In his most famous work, The Guide of the Perplexed, Maimonidesattempted to explain various difficult aspects of the Jewish tradition ofrabbinic and biblical literature by means of philosophic method derivedfrom Aristotle. What he attempts to do instead is to use philosophic method, ashe conceives it, to confirm the truth of the various assertions he makesregarding the nature of prophecy. But, since Maimonides' goal is to reconcile human intellectualprocesses with divine revelation, he hopes to avoid these problems andtakes several precautions to do so. When viewed from this vantage they are very similar--both believein training and election. He did not make independentclaims for the truth of Aristotelian philosophy in theological matters.Thus throughout these chapters rational, logical argument is merely themeans by which the truths of revelation are either confirmed or furtherexplicated. Ed. Nor is there any questionthat there were other prophets. The fact that Maimonides did, to a limited extent, subject the systemto such interrogation was not, however, based on any desire to question itsintegrity. [18]Ibid., 361. on account of divine will."[19] Maimonides then offers his Biblical precedent with just such a case;that of Baruch who "followed Jeremiah who trained, taught, and preparedhim" and who wished to be a prophet but was prevented by God who told him,through Jeremiah, not to seek these things for himself.[2 ] Thisdifference may seem like a curious place to begin. Maimonides was sure that, as he put it, "the works ofAristotle are the roots and foundations of all works on the sciences."[5]The philosophical method of Aristotle was the height of human intellectualendeavor and must, therefore, be capable of supporting the height of Divinetruth revealed in the Law. [2 ]Ibid., 362. Being a created and, therefore, a smaller and lesser thing than itscreator, it need not be capable of supporting the words of scripture. Thesystem should be complete within itself and in no need of outside support. [23]Ibid. Commentary on the Mishnah. Isadore Twersky. Followers of the Law hold that a person can be calledand then not chosen and this introduces divine will into the picture in amuch more active, typically Mosaic fashion, than it exists in the parts ofthe definition of prophecy on which, as Maimonides claims, philosophers andfollowers of the Law agree. Indeed if a perfect example canexist this means that other perfect examples can exist. A theological belief system that is based on the interpretation of anextensive array of texts and predicated on the proposition that everythingcontained within them is, de facto, true (even if that truth requires someinterpretation) must remain apart from any other system in order tofunction. . This correspondence became The Guide of the Perplexed.When rabbis had questions about the Law they raised the problem with aleading rabbi "and the legal master sent an answer or responsum" whichsubsequently acquired "the standing of a major legal judgment for all theJewish community."[2] Knowing that his responsum would be regarded in thisway Maimonides addressed it to all those, like his friend, who were rabbisand, therefore, knowledgeable about and committed to rabbinic Judaism.Such persons also possessed some knowledge of general theology andphilosophy, including the works of Aristotle, as translated and interpretedby Muslim scholars (the form in which Maimonides knew Aristotle's work aswell). But he differed from most of them in using ascientific, logical approach, employing the argumentative forms and methodsof demonstration of philosophy to aid in demonstrating the truths of thereligious tradition. Maimonides first became famous as physician to Saladin's grandvizier, or chief minister. NOTE TO CLIENT: Since you did not send full sections of Twersky I cited the Commentary on the Mishnah as if the whole work was included in his anthology. Barry W. The perfection of the Law is, ofcourse, a matter of simple assertion based on the truth of revelation. Maimonidesoffers, however, a number of scriptural examples of why other laws areimperfect. Basically he does not put forthany startling new theological ideas or interpretations in the chapter onprophecy. New York: Behrman, 1972.Samuelson, Norbert M. He recognized that there was an "implicitantagonism" between religion, which valued action, and Philosophy'sdisinterested, contemplative goal of achieving "rational opinions withoutactions or moral qualities."[7] But Maimonides also believed that, eventhough human reason was fallible, philosophic method could be employed as aguide to the truths of religion. But this whole-and-parts argument is certainly notapplicable to the argument that a perfect example of a species precludesthe existence of other perfect examples. If its only function were viewed as a means of explainingthe world then it could be consistent with the greater entity that createdit. Maimonides' method is to make his basic assertion and thendemonstrate its truth via quotations from the Bible or the sages. Yet attempting to support this bymeans of a series of logical propositions leads him into illogic because,first, it is necessary to start with premises that are, logically speaking,unfounded but cannot be interrogated by logic and, second, the substancewith which he deals is deliberately antirational. The fact that they were notreported as saying they had spoken directly with God makes it clear, infact, they had not done so. The selection by God is a relatively passivething. This is a perfect angle, in Maimonides' view, from which to discuss thephenomenon of prophecy. Butwhat it does is to establish the connection between the supposed notion ofprophecy favored by philosophers and that believed in by those who followthe Law. Maimonides appears to have been perplexed himself by the factthat a system that was, manifestly, a creation of God, could not bereconciled with the word of God and his own perplexity achieves itsexpression in the difficulties he encounters in the attempt to reconcilethe two systems in The Guide of the Perplexed. [4]Isadore Twersky, Introduction, A Maimonides Reader, ed. [8]Ibid., 14. But Maimonides was aware of the differencebetween faith and reason. [11]Ibid., 419. [1 ]Moses Maimonides, Commentary on the Mishnah, A Maimonides Reader,ed. For example, the "flow of the ActiveIntellect goes in its true reality only to [the rational faculty] causingit to pass from potentiality to actuality."[23] Thus he is explaining thefaculty in the sort of terms of instrumentality that are suited to thelogical progressions found in Aristotle. Maimonides (1135-12 4) was born in the Spanish city of Cordova but,in order to avoid the wars in the region, migrated to Morocco and then toOld Cairo, or Fostat, in Egypt. He says of this question of the perfection of the Law of Moses thatit is clearly supported by the logical proposition that "when a thing is asnear perfect as it is possible to be within its species, it is impossiblethat within the species there should be found another thing that does notfall short of that perfection either because of excess or deficiency."[15]This very doubtful logical proposition is then extended to the qualitiespossessed by Moses. The passages from the sacred texts that he quotesare particularly vague about the subjects he claims they address. [19]Ibid. Isadore Twersky (New York: Behrman, 1972), 418-19. But Twersky may only have excerpted it. Shlomo Pines(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 38 . New York: Simon and Schuster-Touchstone, 1984.Twersky, Isadore. Here Maimonides seems to be thinking of theprinciple of first things and the difference in order between creator andcreated, i.e., if things exist then they must have been created and ifthere is a creator who created things then those things cannot be equal tothe creator but must be less than 'him' because they are only part of himand not the whole. The progression of the degrees of prophecy, forexample, makes distinctions that hardly seem valuable for any reason otherthan Maimonides' desire to demonstrate that they have an inherent logicalstructure. Itwas received directly from God and is, therefore, perfect. But Maimonides clearlychose it specifically as a way to introduce the philosophicaldemonstrations into his discussion of prophecy. He then,however, proceeds to a logical demonstration in which he hopes to show howreason can be employed to support his interpretation. [5]Ibid. There is, for example, noclaim that Aristotle's words are the revealed word of God and there is,therefore, no possibility that they can be claimed to be, de facto, true.If one wishes to accept the terms of a system of beliefs then there isreally no reason to subject that system to interrogation from outside. But, in Maimonides' version, God is stillactive and makes a secondary choice. But, for Maimonides, these kinds of distinctions were not possible.The intrinsic, interconnected nature of God and all of his creation meantthat the connections among its aspects were very close. Then, in addition to this argument from themanifest truth of the sacred texts, Maimonides adds such philosophical-logical arguments as are available to support him. [22]Ibid., 377. Theyeither describe qualities that certain prophets possess, withoutnecessarily saying that they are essential qualities of prophets, or areworded so vaguely that only a great deal of interpretation will make itclear that they are, in fact, descriptions of the qualities of prophets.This describes the two qualities discussed in Chapter 38--courage anddivination--which "must necessarily be very strong in prophets."[21]Courage is ascribed to prophets generally on the basis of the injunctionsto Jeremiah and Ezekial to "be not afraid of them or of their words."[22]But with divination Maimonides begins to explain the development of thespeculative faculty in terms that resemble the terms in which one woulddiscuss physiological processes. This seems like an odd point to make. [7]Twersky, 21. The first is that of most pagans and someless-informed Jews, i.e., that God can make anyone into a prophet as hesees fit and does so regardless of the individual's qualities. The proposition demonstrates the opposite of whatMaimonides intended. Introduction. And, since human beings were capable of suchintellectual achievement, it was inexcusable to employ sloppy reasoning inthe defense of the faith. Proving these points by logical means is impossible,as Maimonides would admit. The principal given is that prophecy does indeed exist.There is no question that Moses was a prophet. Logic is the core of Maimonides' argument in the chapter of the Guidedealing with prophecy. Isadore Twersky. His family were traders in precious stonesand Maimonides followed this profession until his brother died on a tradingtrip. To do this he interprets the phrasing of the Bible. He does not gooutside his sources for additional proofs of revealed truths--they stand ontheir own. Ed. Moses ben Maimon, known as Maimonides, was a twelfth-century Jewishphilosopher who was heavily influenced by the ancient Greek philosopherAristotle. [16]Ibid. If he merely wished to demonstrate that the Lawof Moses was unique then he has already demonstrated this to his own (andhis intended readers') satisfaction via the quotations from sacredwritings. BibliographyMaimonides, Moses. [6]Samuelson, 264. Shlomo Pines. He quitesimply says that he "will not pay attention to the opinion of Epicurus, forhe does not believe in the existence of a deity and all the more does notbelieve in prophecy," and this effectively eliminates the problem of anychallenge to his basic premises.[17] He turns then to the threeconceptions he will consider. Throughout these chaptersMaimonides demonstrations are forced into formats of this sort, to whichthey seem ill-suited. A Maimonides Reader. Everyone possesses the potential to become a prophet and, withsufficient training, and God's permission the potentiality can be realizedand one can become a prophet. "Medieval Jewish Philosophy." Back to the Source: Reading the Classic Jewish Texts, 261-3 3. But this is onlypartially because he proceeds from axioms that are unquestioned (i.e., thatMoses is of a different order as a prophet, that the Law of Moses isperfect and unique). He does not, however, make the claimthat any of the contents of the prophecies of Moses or the lesser prophetscould have be arrived at by reason alone. This makes all prophets distinct from Moses whose prophecy wasof a different order entirely. Trans. [9]Ibid., 14. [12]Ibid. Maimonides was concerned to keep "people who were not able tounderstand philosophic matters" from being confused or misled into heresyby his Guide.[13] In order to avoid this he arranged his presentation in amanner that would make it inaccessible to most people. But he uses arguments from philosophy to support them. The secondnotion is, he claims, that of philosophers who believe that "prophecy is acertain perfection in the nature of man [achieved] after a training that"actualizes a potential that all men possess.[18] Maimonides says thatthose who follow the Law agree with this position except that they alsobelieve that "it may happen that one who is fit for prophecy and preparedfor it should not become a prophet . [15]Ibid., 38 . [14]Moses Maimonides, The Guide of the Perplexed, trans. Holtz (New York:Simon and Schuster-Touchstone, 1984), 273. In his commentary on the Mishnah (the written compilation of thematerials of the Oral Torah) Maimonides undertook a "lengthy excursus onJewish belief" in the course of his discussion of Perek Helek, a chapter inthe Talmudic tractate Sanhedrin.[8] In this extended section Maimonidesoutlined the 13 principles of the Jewish faith. In both cases the Bible says that this isso and that is Maimonides' starting point. [3]Ibid., 275. Such a high position within the Islamicgovernment led to his appointment as nagid, or head, of the Jewishcommunity in Egypt. Moses' unique status was due to the factthat he had "nothing physical to hold him back, no deficiency, great orsmall, to confuse him [and] his powers of sense and fantasy were repressed,[so that] pure reason alone remained."[12] These qualities whose absenceenabled Moses to bear the Law to humanity are, however, the same qualitiesthat other prophets still possess. Thus Maimonides'supposed logical demonstration of the uniqueness of the Law and of Moses'qualities as a prophet is actually undermined by his supportivedemonstration. Prophecy is,essentially, not rational behavior governed by the rules of everydayearthly existence or subject to everyday human logic. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.