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BREASTFEEDING & CHILD DEVELOPMENT.   Term Paper ID:27038 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines positive biological, psychological, cognitive & other benefits.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines positive biological, psychological, cognitive & other benefits. Paper Introduction: PART I: INTRODUCTION As more women enter the workforce, the question of whether or not to breast feed becomes a decision of great importance. This paper will examine studies dealing with the effect of breast feeding on infant nutrition and development, as compared to the effect of bottle feeding. Breast feeding has gone in and out of style throughout the years, but as research continues, its use has been proven to be overall physically and cognitively beneficial, and its positive effect on health cannot be ignored. Breast feeding begins in a hospital setting. Up until 75 years ago all infants had to be breast fed. Rosenblith (1992) points out that breast feeding "requires frequent interactions; a baby nursed on demand will nurse every two to three hours. . . among upper classes in Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. L., PhD.(1999, May 5.) Breast feeding effects on intelligence quotient in 4- andeleven-year old children. Ball and White conducted their study by calculating the how often, inthe first year of life, health services were used for three illnesses:lower respiratory tract illness, otitis media, and gastrointestinalillness. In light of the number of formulasthat are now supplemented with "breast milk nutrients," perhaps it wouldalso to help categorize children according to the type of formula used. N., Menezea, S. In addition, breast feeding also decreases the risk for manydiseases. (1999, April 4.)Health care costs of formula-feeding in the first year of life.Pediatrics. They were also lesslikely to suffer from lower respiratory tract illness within the first yearof life; however, the difference was not significant (Ball and White, 1999,p. Unpublished master's thesis, University ofWashington, Seattle. 71). This study was conducted during the period of time that 944infants in the Tucson Children's Respiratory Study and 644 infants in theDandee Community Study were undergoing exclusive breast feeding.Information was collected from study records, including enrollment surveysand repeat visit questionnaires; subsequent study visits; and medicalrecords. In connection with these studies, it has been found that breast milkhas certain nutritional value. Other studies have shown that immediatecontact helps to establish breast feeding (Rosenblith, 183; Souza et al.,1974; Winters, 1973; Klaus and Kennell, 1976). 77). 872). Each child was studied regarding maternal breast feeding from birthto one year, then again at eight years, and finally at eighteen years.Mothers were queried about their breast feeding patterns, and based onthose results the following groups were identified in regard to when breastfeeding was terminated: fewer than or at four months, four months to sevenmonths, and longer than eight months. After adjustment using multiple regression models, childrenbreast fed for more than eight months had mean test scores that werebetween .11 and .3 standard deviation units higher than those not breastfed. In addition, they compared breast feeding to bottle feeding and foundthat breast fed children performed better on numerous tests over theirbottle fed counterparts. At four years and eleven years, the children were asked toperform a variety of tests. The study illustrates the physical benefits inherent in breastfeeding. 876),confirming what many others had already noted. Neurodevelopmental research has found that one factor in the improvedcognitive abilities of breast fed children "may involve long-chainpolyunsaturated fatty acids, and particularly, docosahexanoic acid (DHA)"found in the breast milk (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. (1992.) In the Beginning: Development fromConception to Age Two. Exclusive breast feeding was alsotracked. The sample was reduced to 28 children whenthey reached the age of eleven. suggest this means that "a mother'sdecision to breast feed, particularly for an extended period, presumablyreflects her concern with her infant's welfare and her motivation andability to stimulate and enrich her child's development, which are at leastpartially independent of social class and education" (Jacobson et al.,1999, p. Othersappreciate the bond that forms as a result of breast feeding. 87 -876. 1 ). H., and Kennell, J. Sage Publications: Newbury Park. (1976.) Maternal-infant bonding.Mosby: St. Of these, ten were statistically significant, one marginallysignificant, and one clearly nonsignificant. Souza, P. 1 35). 87 ). This is a valid hole in theirresearch. Theeffects of maternal intelligence quotient must be further examined.Standards for parenting skills need to be developed and quantified so thatthese may be studied as well. Pediatrics. R.; Barros, F. They found that breast fed children had higher intelligence quotientsat both ages, and that the duration of breast feeding also affected testscores (Jacobson et al., 1999, p. In addition, breast fedchildren were still significantly less likely to leave school withoutqualifications (Horwood and Fergusson,1998, p. In addition, if a mother chooses to research the availableinformation to determine which formula offers similar benefits as breastmilk, would this not indicate a concern and interest in the care of herchild? They found that formula-fed infants have more illnesses and, as aresult, cost the health care system more money (Ball and White, 1999, p.87 ). More research is definitely needed to explore both the physical andcognitive benefits of breast milk. J., and Fergusson, D. Epidemiological studies have shown that breast feeding providessignificant advantages with regard to general health, growth, anddevelopment. In addition, studying the effect of confounders such as amount ofcontact with medical staff, health-seeking behavior, and referral patternsmay reveal additional correlations. And finally, in regard to the calculations determining the excesscost spent on additional health care, factors such as geographic locationsand population characteristics, including breast feeding and illness rates,should also be examined.Breast feeding and Later Cognitive and Academic Outcomes(Horwood and Fergusson, 1998) Horwood and Fergusson examine "the associations between duration ofbreast feeding and childhood cognitive ability and academic achievementover the period from eight to eighteen years using data collected duringthe course of an eighteen year longitudinal study of a birth cohort ofgreater than 1, New Zealand children" (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p.9). V.; Begeres, R. In fact, infantsthat were still breast feeding at six months had gained one-and-a-halfpounds more, and had had fewer infections. References American Academy of Pediatrics. L., PhD. M.;Pinheiro, G. Further research has tried to isolate theingredients. . Those infants breast fed exclusively for more than or equal to threemonths were significantly less likely to have had otitis media andgastrointestinal illness before the age of three years than were those whonever breast fed (Ball and White, 1999, p. F. However, when maternal intelligencequotient and parenting style was also factored in, the differences werenonsignificant. 9. Research studying breast milk's effecton other illnesses as compared to breast feeding would further ourunderstanding of the physical effects of breast feeding. Women who did not breast feed were found to beyounger; to have been less educated, to have smoked during pregnancy; to bemore likely to have come from families of lower socioeconomic status, below-average living standards, and/or low income; and to have been a singleparent at the time of the survey (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. Lactational amenorrhea causes less menstrual blood loss over the months after delivery. More research studying the correlationsbetween various other diseases and breast feeding and bottle feeding willshed light on these questions. However, some issues are raisedby the research. Perhaps, bottle fed infants would expressgreater immunity to some of these. If this is the case, why would there be any significant differencesbetween breast feeding and bottle feeding at all? Data was collected on breast feeding patterns attwo, four, five, and seven months, and the children were classified intoone of five categories ranging from exclusively breast fed to exclusivelybottle fed. 1 ).(Confounders are factors that could affect the outcome.) Another studyfound that breast feeding also correlates to increased "developmentalscores at eighteen months and higher intelligence quotients at seven-and-a-half to eight years of age" than children who were not breast fed (Horwoodand Fergusson, 1998, p. M., MA; and Jacobson, J. Longitudinal studies have found that children breast fed for aslittle as three to five months receive benefits and measure "between .15and .25 standard deviation units in mean test performance, even aftercontrol for confounders" (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. Ball, T. This suggests that perhaps breast milk does notcontain nutrients advantageous to cognitive development, but rather thatgenetics and socioenvironmental factors influence this process. Breast feeding also has the probable protective effect of deterringsudden infant death syndrome, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn'sdisease, ulcerative colitis, lymphoma, allergic diseases, as well as otherchronic digestive diseases (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997, p. M. Multiple regression tablescompleted with social class and education levels of parents reduced thesefigures but not below significance. Klaus and Kennell(1976) found that a mother's milk provides betterimmunity and eliminates dangers of formula contamination. (1973.) The relationship of time of initial feeding tosuccess of breast feeding. Horwood and Fergussonstick to quantifiable measures in the study from test scores to familyplacement to age. Perhaps, this could besaid of many other illnesses. Overall, research supports these findings though some probe deeper,exploring additional factors and in some instances questioning thebeneficial and nutritional value of breast milk. 87 ). T.; and Arruda, L. Paper presented at the Fifteenth InternationalCongress of Pediatrics, Buenos Aires. The children or sample members were assessed on a range of measures of cognitive and academic outcomes including measures of child intelligence quotient; teacher ratings of school performance; standardized tests of reading comprehension, mathematics, and scholastic ability; pass rates in school leaving examinations; and leaving school without qualifications(Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. Inaddition, how parenting skills are determined is not explained in greatdetail, leaving questions as to the quantifiability and subjectivity ofthese measures. The findings are definitely indicative of the tangible physicalbenefits associated with breast feeding. Winters, M. The results found that in the first year of life, after adjusting for confounders, there were 2, 33 excess office visits, 212 excess days of hospitalization, and 6 9 excess prescriptions for these three illnesses per 1, never-breast fed infants compared with 1, infants exclusively breast fed for at least three months. In addition, the sample was not diverse, and these results can not beapplied to a wider population. This may seem logical, but there is no evidence presented to drawthis conclusion. (Ball and White, 1999, p. Breast fedinfants were found to have enhanced immunity to certain illnesses. M., MD, MPH, and Wright, A. 87 ). 1 ).Breast fed children were also "considerably less likely" than non-breastfed children to leave school without qualifications, with those breast fedfor longer than eight months only two-thirds as likely to have left schoolwithout qualifications (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. For instance, those with a greater-than-average amount of interaction with medical staff will have moreopportunity to ask questions and may be more knowledgeable about health andappropriate procedures as a result than those who do not interact withhealth professionals frequently. They concluded that breast milk provides optimal nutrition and manycomponents including immunoglobins and growth factors not present informula. 71-82. In light of the findings of the nextstudy, more research is needed to determine if the previous research stillstands or if served as a springboard from which to build. H. 167). Klaus, M. . The contaminant was found to have no effectduring breast feeding. Confounders included those factors that were associated with theduration of breast feeding. Rosenblith, J. The results were adjusted for possible correlations with maternaleducation and maternal smoking confounders (Ball and White, 1999, p. Based oninformation gathered at three months, each child was classified asbelonging to one of three categories: never breast fed, partially breastfed, or exclusively breast fed (Ball and White, 1999, p. Theywere also found to have higher intelligence quotients, better test scores,improved cognitive ability, and superior academic performance. 1 ). These additional health care services cost the managed health care system between $331 and $475 per never-breast fed infant during the first year of life. Beforefactoring in potential confounders, children breast fed for longer thaneight months had mean test scores between .35 and .59 standard deviationunits higher than those bottle fed (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. Rather lower respiratory tract illness is found to nothave a significant association with breast feeding. The following articleswill explore these issues and findings. W., PhD; Chiodo, L. The findings do not include significant indicators forall the illnesses. However, this does not explain the physical effects likeincreased immunity. Klaus and Kennell (1976)surmised that these differences may simply reflect the advantages of breastfeeding over bottle feeding. A broader sample would be necessaryto determine applicability. L. It has long been acknowledged that breast feeding increases levels of cytocin, resulting in less postpartum bleeding and more rapid uterine involution. Some research suggests that there is no cognitive nutritional valueto milk, but rather that it is the mother's concern and interest in herchild's. Up until 75 years agoall infants had to be breast fed. found that children breast fed in infancy did havesignificantly higher scores on intelligence quotient tests at four andeleven, even with corrections for social class and education (Jacobson etal., 1999, p. "Research in the United States, Canada, Europe, and other developedcountries, among predominantly middle-class populations, provides strongevidence that human milk feeding decreases the incidence and/or severity ofdiarrhea, lower respiratory infection, otitis media, bactermia, bacterialmeningitis, botulism, urinary tract infection, and necrotizingenterocolitis." (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997, p. PART I: INTRODUCTION As more women enter the workforce, the question of whether or not tobreast feed becomes a decision of great importance. 1 35-1 39. Maternal intelligence quotient may play a role as willparenting skills, but to assume that this means these women are moreconcerned and capable mothers will probably meet with great argument. More research isnecessary to confirm the findings of this study.Breast feeding Effects on Intelligence Quotient in 4- and 11-Year-OldChildren (Jacobson et al., 1999) Jacobson et al. (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1 35). 876). A. This information has been used to develop supplements forformulas to attempt to mimic the effects of breast feeding. These components act in assisting the "development of immunologicresponse and growth of infant tissues such as the brain" (Ball and White,1999, p. They found that a longer duration of breast feeding was associatedwith consistent and statistically significant increases in 1) intelligence quotient assessed at age eight and nine years; 2) reading comprehension, mathematical ability, and scholastic ability assessed from ten to thirteen years; 3) teacher ratings of reading and mathematics assessed at eight and twelve years; and 4) higher levels of school attainment leaving examinations (Horwood and Fergusson, 1998, p. They did find that breast feeding mothers were significantly bettereducated and less likely to smoke (Ball and White, 1999, p. Pediatrics. 87 ). (1998, January 1.) Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes. Horwood, L. Therefore, they would probably not be interested insomething as vague as parenting style. 1 ). They could have, however, correctedfor maternal intelligence quotient. Breast feeding begins in a hospital setting. In addition, it compares breast feeding to bottle feeding andfinds that breast feeding produces healthier children with regard toincidence of these illnesses. Studies exploringadditional confounders on the cognitive effects are also needed. They also compared breast feeding to bottle feeding. Recent research demonstrates that lactating women have an earlier return to prepregnant weight, delayed resumption of ovulation with increased child spacing, improved bone remineralization postpartum with reduction in hip fractures in the post menopausal period, and reduced risk of ovarian cancer and premenopausal breast cancer. (1997, December.) Breast feedingand the use of human milk. Regardless of the research, however, breast feeding will always bethe sole choice for some mothers. PART III: SYNTHESISResearch Shows Breast Feeding Is Beneficial Despite the questions raised by the last study, the majority of theresearch exploring breast feeding versus bottle feeding has found thatbreast feeding has benefits not inherent in bottle feeding. Similarly those who are less hesitant tovisit a doctor may tend to come into the hospital more frequently whilethose who are uncomfortable with doctor's visits will avoid coming in,affecting reports of illness. (1974, October.)Attachment and lactation. Rosenblith (1992) points out that breastfeeding "requires frequent interactions; a baby nursed on demand will nurseevery two to three hours. among upper classes in Western cultures,women called 'wet nurses' often had been hired to nurse babies and thusrelieve the mother of the chore of nursing (p. Part II: TARGET RESEARCHStudying Health Care Costs of Formula-Feeding in the First Year of Life(Ball and White, 1999) Ball and White (1999) set out to "determine the excess cost of healthcare services for three illnesses in formula-fed infants in the first yearof life, after adjusting for potential confounders" (Ball and White, 1999,p. All children were healthy at birth, and represented non-selected,population-based samples (Ball and White, 1999, p. However when corrected for confounders, some of these results werereduced. 1 ).In addition, these effects were evident into adolescence and youngadulthood. The sample was comprised of 323 white, predominantly middle-classchildren at four years pulled form another study researching the effects ofan environmental contaminant. 87 ). Studies have also looked at the effect of breast feeding on themother and found correlations exist that indicate breast feeding haspotential health benefits for the mother as well as the infant. However, they do control for a number of other factors, some ofwhich may also correlate with maternal intelligence and/or parenting style,which is a very subjective form of observation. 18). The children were all white, and themajority were from the middle-class. 876). 1 ). This paper willexamine studies dealing with the effect of breast feeding on infantnutrition and development, as compared to the effect of bottle feeding.Breast feeding has gone in and out of style throughout the years, but asresearch continues, its use has been proven to be overall physically andcognitively beneficial, and its positive effect on health cannot beignored. However, when these results were adjusted for themother's intelligence quotient and parenting skills, the new data was notstatistically significant. Some see it as natural. Jacobson, S. Jacobson et al. Pediatrics. Rating a mother's concern and level ofinterest would also prove enlightening. 17). 1 35). C.; Gazalle, R. 78). The follow-up at eight and eighteen was meant to gather data on howlong any effects persist. While Horwood and Fergusson did adjust for a number of confounders,the next researcher we will examine accuses them of not including maternalintelligence quotient or parenting skills. Louis, MO. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.