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JEWS IN 11TH CENTURY SPAIN.   Term Paper ID:28136 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Status, accomplishments & influence of Jewish communities in Muslim Spain. History, Golden Age of Jewish achievement, assimilation.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Status, accomplishments & influence of Jewish communities in Muslim Spain. History, Golden Age of Jewish achievement, assimilation. Paper Introduction: JEWS IN 11TH CENTURY MUSLIM SPAIN This research paper examines the status, accomplishments and influence of the Jewish communities in Muslim Spain during the 11th century. That century witnessed a remarkable intellectual and cultural renaissance as well as economic prosperity in the parts of Spain under Muslim rule in which Jewish elites and communities participated and toward which they made major contributions, a Golden Age of Jewish achievement and Muslim-Jewish collaboration. Paradoxically, some of the factors which enabled the Jews to expand their influence, particularly in practical affairs, such as the growing disunity of the Muslim empire in Spain, also made the 11th century a time of great trial and stress for many Jews, who increasingly found themselves caught in the middle of the great struggle between Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Although the Muslimsquickly overran all of Spain in the early 8th century and their armiescrossed the Pyrenees, they were pushed back by French and other Christianprinces to a line below which lay most of the wealthiest parts of Spain,Toledo, the major northern and eastern cities of Saragossa and Valencia andall of Andalucia. Ashtor said "when a bridge was suddenly erected over the chasmwhich had once separated them and the Moslems, the intellectuals and thewealthy among the Jews walked across it with joyous celerity."[11] He saidthis was a fatal step for the Jews because "this blossoming and theircloseness with their non-Jewish neighbors had a decisive influence on thereligious outlook of the upper strata among the Jewish community-- and thisimperiled their absolute existence."[12] All this lay in the future. Aaron Klein and Jenny Machlowitz Klein. Then oncemore they had to move on, as they have had to do so often in their history.They left behind a glittering and enduring set of monuments to their skillsand creative energies in Muslim Spain. He used these talents and his skills inadministration and diplomacy to rise in the ranks of the Berber Sinhadjakingdom of Granada where he achieved great distinction, at first behind thescenes as a political adviser and tax collector and eventually in the 1 3 sas vizier or chief adviser to King Habbus. Baer summarized these developments which in theend led to the burning of thousands of Jews at the stake, the forcedconversion of many others and their final expulsion from the peninsula in1492: The war against their Muslim neighbors caused the Spanish to become at once the most tolerant and the most fanatical people in medieval Christendom. The small kingdoms that emerged with the downfall of the caliphate was continuously at war with each other. 113-131. [14] Ashtor, Volume 2, 194. .apparently assimilated far more to its neighbors than did other Jewries inimportant Jewish centers" such as Cairo or Baghdad.[26] While that wastrue, the Jews were frequently the subject of discriminatory laws in MuslimSpain as well as in Christian Spain. 1-14. New York: George Brazilier, 1992.----------------------- [1] Frederick David Mocatta, The Jews of Spain and Portugal and TheInquisition (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1973), 2. [11] Ashtor, Volume 2, 27. Prior to these times, the Omayyad rulers had sought to maintain abalance among the various nationalities they ruled, but their successors,mostly provincial officers, had less compunction about availing themselvesof administrative and diplomatic talent wherever they found it. . "Hebrew Poetry in Medieval Iberia." In Convivencia Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. During the first twodecades of the 11th century, a series of assassinations, coups andcountercoups destroyed the political unity of the Omayyad Caliphate andreduced the political importance of its capital Cordoba. Scheindler, "Hebrew Poetry in Medieval Iberia," inConvivencia Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. Mann, Thomas F. New York: George Brazilier, 1992.Mann, Vivian B., Thomas F. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. He acquired a superiorrabbinic and Arabic education. Gampel said "the Jewish courtier was trusted preciselybecause both he and royal authorities were aware that if he fell out offavor, the entire Jewish community would be made to suffer."[7] AfterShaprut, Jewish leaders appointed by the court known as nasi "acted as therecognized representatives of their community, made endeavors for thewelfare of communities and individuals, were responsible for the payment oftaxes, and served as chief justices."[8] Expansion of Jewish Influence Enhanced Status of Jews under the Taifa Rulers. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. Vivian A.Mann, Thomas F. They also used Arabic because their patrons or masters were Muslimsas were many of their consumers. [17] Gampel, 17. Perhaps the greatest of all the Jewish philosophers ofMuslim Spain, Maimonides, left for other parts of the Muslim world in theearly 12th century. According to Ashtor, "at atime when the countries of Christian Europe were still engulfed byignorance, eminent scholars dwelt in the Moslem cities of Spain."[25] Limits of Assimilation Ashtor pointed out that in Muslim Spain, "the large Jewry . [7] Gampel, 19. Non-Muslims suffered fromvarious disabilities. This washardly surprising since most of the Jews in Spain had spoken and thought inArabic for centuries in Spain or other previous settlements such as NorthAfrica. In Iberia And Beyond Hispanic Jews between Cultures. [15] Raymond P. Samuel was fascinated by the sheer beauty of thelanguage. Since the Muslim world neverwas able to preserve its unity anywhere and went into a long period ofdecline after about 9 , it is doubtful that the Jews could have doneanything to stave off their eventual fate. 39-59. Those who went north to the Christians found that their skills asdiplomats, administrators, linguists and their resources as money lenderswere welcomed, but they basically depended on the good graces of theChristian princes and kings which could be withdrawn at any time. Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman Iinvited numerous Jewish scholars to study at the great universities heestablished at Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Lucena and his successorscontinued those policies. and lexicography."[23] Arabmysticism was used by Talmudic scholar theologist Abu Ishak Bahya JosephIbn Pakuda in Saragossa to restore a greater sense of the inner spirit tothe Jewish religion. Vivian B. Whatever the nature of convivencia [co-existence among Jews, Arabs, and Christians] during the period of the taifa kingdoms, it was always tenuous and at best enjoyed only by a tiny elite.[27] The position of Jewish communities worsened when their leaders suchas Samuel's son in Granada lost their grip on power. trans. The new Taifa rulers continued thesepractices. [16] Mocatta, 5. Mann,Thomas F. That struggle produced great migrations of Jews withinMuslim Spain and from Muslim to Christian Spain and elsewhere which in thelong run helped spread to the West important scientific and otherintellectual currents originating in the East, but also weakened theposition of the Jews in the Muslim community and, as the century ended,left them uncomfortably dependent upon their new found Christianprotectors. Despite these restrictionsand burdens, those minorities who were 'people of the book,' followers ofother monotheistic religions, such as Christians and Jews, were dhimmis,protected minorities, who were free to practice their religion providedthey did not try to convert Muslims or engage in public processions ordisplays. [5] Wayne E. By the end of the 1 th century, the Jews ofCordoba and other major Andalucian cities had benefitted from theprosperity of the Omayyad state and their elites were protected by thecourt in Cordoba. . A long period of relative peace ensued. A History of the Jews in Christian Spain Volume I. About 1 12, other Muslim provinces broke away from Cordobabecoming about 2 Muslim principalities led by the so-called Taifa rulersin Andalucia who warred with each other over the rest of the century. Nevertheless, the special dispensations accorded the Jewsin Muslim Spain were resented by many Christians and by orthodoxIslamicists. Hebrought in many Jewish scholars from abroad and other Jewish immigrantsfrom North Africa and the Middle East who were attracted by the prosperityand assimilation of Jewish thought within the Omayyad Empire. The first massacre of Jews byChristians occurred in the town of Mahon in Minorca in 418. Avariety of special taxes were imposed on non-Muslims, including acapitation or head tax, special assessments on minority communities, and onrich individuals as well as inheritance taxes. The Jews of Modern Spain Volume 3. Dodds (eds.). The Jews of Modern Spain Volume 2. [1 ] Ashtor, Volume 2, 24. Newark: University ofDelaware Press, 1998.Cooperman, Bernard Dov (ed.). 11-37. Their skills and resourcesremained in great demand. [24] Ashtor, Volume 3, 51. The rise of Catholicism in Spaincombined with the fervent desire for reconquest of the lands lost to theMuslims made the rise of anti-Jewish sentiment, given the beliefs of thetime as to the role of Jews in the death of Christ and their supposedliaison with the forces of evil, equally inevitable over time. "The Portrayal of the Jew in Alfonso the Learned'sCantiguas de Santa Maria. He alsopromoted scientific exchanges in fields such as astronomy and mathematics,which helped produce the first major infusion of Hellenic, Arabic andIndian science into Spain. [They] had spoken Arabic for hundreds ofyears."[19] There was also the aesthetic attraction of Arabic which with itscomplexity of grammar and felicity of expression opened up new vistas forHebrew poets and writers. After his death in 1 56, his son Josephbecame vizier and ruled until 1 66 until he was assassinated by Muslimpurists. Shaprut was a Jewish physician at court who understood Latin andArabic. Jewish intellectuals and scholars kept intouch with their counterparts in Iraq and other parts of the Muslim world.Gampel said after the 9th century, "Iberian Jewry slowly began toparticipate in the efflorescence of rabbinic and Muslim culture thatemanated from Baghdad."[6] In the 1 th century, the Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III chose as hisrepresentative to the Jewish community, a royal courtier, Hasdai ibnShaprut. Even so, as of the 11th century, theinsecurity of Jews in Christian Spain was much greater than those of Jewsin Muslim Spain. Dodds. Dodds (New York: George Brazilier, 1992),16. New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1973.Scheindler, Raymond P. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. The Jews of Spain and Portugal and the Inquisition. Thereafter, Ashtor said "afterthe riots the kingdom of Granada was no longer the center of the Jews insouthern Spain" and was largely replaced by Seville and, to a lesserextent, by other major centers such as Toledo, Saragossa and Almeria.[14]Seville underwent an economic renaissance in which Jewish physicians,dyemakers and other wealthy Jewish artisans and professionals played amajor role. As aresult, Ashtor said "from the time that the Jews of Andalucia first beganto scatter over the whole Iberian peninsula, their influence in shapingSpanish culture as a whole continued to grow."[13] The most outstanding Jewish leader to emerge during the first half ofthe century was Samuel ha-levi. [4] Eliyahu Ashtor, The Jews of Moslem Spain Volume 2, trans. [2 ] Scheindler, 48. [8] Eliyahu Ashtor, The Jews of Modern Spain Volume 3, trans AaronKlein and Jenny Machlowitz Klein (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Societyof America, 1984), 8 . "Mudejar Tradition and the Synagogues of Medieval Spain: Cultural Identity and Cultural Hegemony." In Convivencia Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. They fled to Saragossa, Toledo, Almeria,Seville and to the new rising Muslim power in Andalucia, the Kingdom ofGranada. New York: George Brazilier, 1992.Mocatta, Frederic David. Dodds (New York: George Brazilier, 1992),12 . Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1998.Dodds, Jerrilynn D. 1984.Baer, Yitzak. In In Iberia And Beyond Hispanic Jews betweenCultures, ed. The Jews retained great influence in Christian Spain for a number ofcenturies. [25] Ashtor, Volume 2, 228. [23] Ashtor, Volume 3, 12. The Jews inSpain rendered a signal service to themselves and to mankind. set its stampupon its economic life" leading to great "prosperity and abundance."[4]After the 1 th century, Carpenter said "economic, political, andintellectual opportunities [for Jews and others] available in al-Andalusfar outstripped those in the Christian north."[5] The Muslim conquerors were far outnumbered by the populations theyconquered. Accordingto Ashtor, "Jews of ability obtained various posts in the service of theMoslem kings, both in the seat of government and elsewhere."[1 ]These rulers also were more secular in spirit than their more religiouspredecessors, which opened up other opportunities for Jews in culturalspheres. Some Christian rulers such as Alfonso continued to employ Jewssuch as his physician and adviser Joseph Ibn Ferrizuel (Cidellus) in highpositions as did some Muslim rulers, such as Muslim kings in Saragossa.Some of the Jewish viziers and scholars who identified too closely with theMuslim cause such as the Jewish writer Abu'l-Fadl Hasdai in Saragossabecame "intimates of the Arabic haute societe and served the Arabicrulers," not in a dual capacity as did Samuel but in a manner whichamounted to a desertion of the Jewish community.[28] As the strugglebetween Christians and Muslims intensified in the 1 7 s and 1 8 s, a numberof Jewish poets and writers, such as Abu'l Fahm Levi in Saragossa began tosound the theme of the Jews' distress. Bernard Dov Cooperman. [9] Ashtor, Volume 2, 7. In summing up this period, Scheindler said "no other Jewishcommunity produced as many Jews who achieved positions of status and powerin the non-Jewish world."[15] Golden Age of Jewish Intellectual and Cultural Achievement. According toMocatta, "when, on the fall of the Roman Empire, the Goths and Vandalsconquered the country, large numbers of them were already established invarious districts throughout the land."[1] As the Visigoths became dominant in areas where most Jews werelocated, the capital, Toledo, Catalonia and Andalucia and converted toCatholicism, they increasingly oppressed the Jews, culminating in KingSisebut's decree in 612 ordering their forced conversion to Christianityand deprived those who refused to convert of much of their property. They established in Spain an Islamic state in which the Caliphin Damascus and his representative in the Muslim Spanish capital Cordobaand Islamic law and religion were supreme. Gampel said "Jewish scholars were spurred on byMuslim achievement."[17] Cooperman described Jewish cultural achievementsas acts "of 'competitive assimilation' in which a cultured courtier-classof Jews sought to prove the equality, and even superiority, of their ownculture in terms drawn from a surrounding society in which they feltequally at home."[18] Dodds said "by the 11th century, the Jews of al-Andalus had come toidentify to a high degree with Islamic culture, not only speaking Arabic,but interacting socially with members of the Andalusian elite and adoptingIslamic dress." He said "the educated Jews of Toledo felt that much Islamicculture was their culture as well. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. More andmore of them turned to the Christians as in their pragmatic calculationsthe likely winners, such as the leading Jewish families of Toledo whowelcomed Alfonso VI's victory in his siege of the city which he captured in1 85. "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia: Convivencia through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews." In Convivencia Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. Further depredations followedincluding the occupation of Cordoba by Christian forces from Castile andCatalonia. Speaking of the effects of the communal disorders in Cordobaearly in the 11th century and later developments, Gampel said: The 11th century was truly an insecure time for the Jews. Vivian B. Unrest followedthe death of the last great Omayyad ruler al-Mansur in 1 2 which Ashtorsaid "marked the waning of the glory of the Omayyad kingdom."[9] His son,al-Muzaffar continued his rule but he was poisoned to death by his brotherin 1 8 who in turn was ousted by a coup in 1 9 in which Berbermercenaries from North Africa were prominent. Dodds. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. A good example ofthat development was Abraham Ibn Ezra (1 89), poet, grammarian, philosopherand scientist who was one of many leading Spanish Jews who left Andaluciaand took with him to Christian Europe the learning of the Golden Age whicheffectively ended toward the end of the 11th century or the first half ofthe 12th century. Carpenter, "The Portrayal of the Jew in Alfonso TheLearned's Cantiguas de Santa Maria," in In Iberia And Beyond Hispanic Jewsbetween Cultures, ed. Vivian B. The destruction of theOmayyad political unity accentuated the vulnerability of the Jews as thestruggle between Christians and Jews for domination of the Peninsulaintensified. Status of Jews under Muslim Rule 711-1 . [26] Ashtor, Volume 3, 1 . As Mocatta putit, numerous Jews attained high honor and lasting fame as poets,philosophers, astronomers, physicians, mathematicians, and grammarians andthrough their linguistic skill rendered an invaluable service to scienceand literature by translating the classical authors of antiquity intoArabic, while they handed over to the Western world the treasures ofEastern lore, thus uniting the whole into one common heritage of humanknowledge.[16] The dominant linguistic metier used by the Jews was Arabic. trans.Louis Schoffman. Mocatta suggested that theJews helped bring about their own downfall by taking advantage of theopportunities for wealth, power and intellectual accomplishment whichcircumstances permitted and by making unseemly displays of their newlyacquired status. They and the Arabs worked out a magnificent collaborationin cross-cultural achievement which could only last as long as the Arabempire in Spain could hold itself together. Bernard Dov Cooperman. Convivencia Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain. Bernard Dov Cooperman (Newark: University of DelawarePress, 1998), 43. Sincethe Arab conquest coincided with Visigoth persecution, Baer said "ArabicSpain became a refuge for the Jews."[2] As late as 1 , only a fewthousand Jews lived in northern or Christian parts of Spain. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1998.Cooperman, Bernard Dov. He was among the refugees who fled fromCordoba to Malaga where he became a merchant. [3 ] Baer, 2-3.----------------------- 1 Mann, Thomas F. [27] Gampel, 2 . Biblical Hebrew had its limitations of expression. Dodds, "Mudejar Tradition and the Synagogues ofMedieval Spain: Cultural Identity and Cultural Hegemony," in ConvivenciaJews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. Jews enjoyed full citizenship rights under the Romans. [19] Jerrilyn D. Thefirst serious tensions between the Jews in Spain and Christians developedin the 4th century AD when under the Council of Elvira, Christians wereforbidden from allowing their daughters to marry Jews, to eat with them orto have their lands blessed by them. Larger groups of Jews made their way to Spain aspart of the Diaspora of Jews throughout the Roman Empire not long after thedeath of Christ. [18] Bernard Dov Cooperman, "Introduction," in In Iberia And BeyondHispanic Jews between Cultures, ed. The political objectives of the Reconquest opened up for Jews broad opportunities for outwardly directed growth, but its religious motivation aroused the zeal of the Christians and subjected the internal religio-ethnic existence of the Jews to a severe trial.[3 ] Evaluation and Conclusion The accomplishments of Spain's Jews in the 11th century represent anoutstanding chapter in the history of the Jewish people and a culturalachievement that played a key transitional role in preserving andtransmitting critical human knowledge. Being secular in orientation, they alsoplaced no barriers in the way of introducing into Spain non-Muslim and non-Jewish art and science of other origin, such as Aristotelian logic andphilosophy, Greek mathematics, Indian numerology and Ptolemy's astronomy.The Jews, who were conversant with all these traditions and languages,including the Romance languages, were ideally situated to import,translate, improve upon and retransmit to the Arabs and to the West thisamazing outpouring of the accumulated knowledge of the East. The poet andphilosopher Solomon ibn Gabriol (1 2 -1 57) of Saragossa used "Arabicliterary techniques" to write Hebrew liturgical poetry which Scheindlersaid was "the most treasured devotional Hebrew devotional writing since thePsalms."[2 ] Another Hebrew poet who employed Arabic forms was Judah Haleviof Granada, "one of the most prolific and musical of Hebrew poets."[21]Ashtor said that "the genuine poets acquired a knowledge of all theingredients of Arabic verse in order to imitate them and introducedpreviously unknown species of verse into Hebrew verse" and philosophy.[22]The Jewish philologist Abu'l-Walid Marwin Ibn Djanah used Arabic grammarand the scientific method of the Greeks "to write [the first] comprehensivetreatises in the field of Hebrew grammar . 1979.Ashtor, Eliyahu. The Omayyads had opened the doors of Muslim centers oflearning to Jewish scholars and leaders such as Shaprut had encouraged manyJewish intellectuals to come to Spain. According toBaer, the Omayyad Caliph Abd-ar-Rahman III (912-961) "having suppressed theseparatist political forces, established a unified and powerful kingdomwhose high cultural level commanded the respect of Europe."[3] Ashtor saidthe "the political security which Moslem Spain enjoyed . Mann,Thomas F. "Introduction." In In Iberia And Beyond Hispanic Jews Between Cultures, ed. In Spain, very substantial autonomy was accorded to the Jewishcommunities to manage their own affairs.From the very first days of the Arab conquest, the Omayyad caliphs, whodeclared their independence from the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 75 ,were more tolerant of Jewish scholars and intellectuals than theircounterparts in Palestine, Persia, Iraq, and Egypt. . [3] Baer, 28. [6] Benjamin R. Glick, and Jerrilynn D. [12] Ibid. Italso unleashed a powerful intellectual, artistic and scientific series ofaccomplishments within Muslim Spain in which the Jews in Spain played aleading role. 15-42. Glick and Jerrilynn D. Dodds. Jews openedthe gates of Toledo to the Muslim armies in 712 and were entrusted withimportant garrison command responsibilities in rear areas such as Sevilleand Granada as the Muslims swept north. Assimilation and cross-cultural infusions between Jews and Muslimswas largely an elite phenomenon in the 11th century. . Ashtor said "Bahya's book bears the stamp of thesymbiotic relationshiop between Jews and Arabs that crystallized in MoslemSpain."[24] Finally, Jews in Spain felt with considerable justification that theywere an important part of a superior culture. [21] Ibid. New York: George Brazilier, 1992.Gampel, Benjamin R. During that period Granada became the preeminent Muslim principalityand the Jewish community of Granada, which Samuel headed, the mostprosperous and influential in all of Spain. One of the first consequences of thedisorders in Cordoba which included some massacres of Jews was a massiveflight of Jews from the city. That century witnessed a remarkable intellectual and culturalrenaissance as well as economic prosperity in the parts of Spain underMuslim rule in which Jewish elites and communities participated and towardwhich they made major contributions, a Golden Age of Jewish achievement andMuslim-Jewish collaboration. He became the Caliph's tax collector for Andalucia and parleyed hissuccess in that role into that of protector of the Jewish community. Thepolitical disintegration of the Omayyad dynasty not only opened up expandedpolitical and economic opportunities for outstanding Jewish leaders such asSamuel ha-levi and for wealthy families in cities such as Seville, Toledoand Saragossa to serve in high position and exercise influence at court. Rarely, has any population of itssize, perhaps 5 to 6 , people at the beginning of the 11th century,made such a huge contribution to civilization. Most of the inhabitants of the peninsula suffered constantly, either as a result of wars or because of continual famine. [2] Yitzhak Baer, A History of the Jews in Christian Spain Volume I,trans. Origins of Jewry in Spain Jews in Spain Before 711 AD. This cultural Muslim-Jewish sharing hadmany competitive aspects. BibliographyAshtor, Eliyahu. Baer said "the transition of SpanishJewry from Muslim rule to Christian domination shook Jewish life deeply.Relatively few Jews were able to utilize the changing situation toadvantage."[29] In the Muslim South, the Tafia rulers turned to North Africa forassistance in repelling Christian attacks, at first to the BerberAlmoravides (1 85-1171) and later to the even more orthodox and asceticAlmohads (1171-1248) whose intolerance toward the Jews caused more and moreof them to migrate north or to other parts of Europe. Vivian B. Some accompanied Phoenician colonizers as tradersin Carthaginian times. Dodds (New York: George Brazilier,1992), 4 . [29] Baer, 59. Jews migrated to Spain long before theArab conquest of 711 AD. Louis Schoffman (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society ofAmerica, 1961), 24. This Arab grammarian andrhetoretician, Hebrew poet, Hebrew law scholar and multi-purposeintellectual achieved more political power than any Jew in the Middle Ages.Granada enjoyed an economic boom in which Jewish textile manufacturers,metal workers, and other artisans and professionals such as physiciansdominated Granada's economic life. After the latter's death in1 37, Samuel became vizier to the new king Babis whom he served as amilitary, diplomatic, financial and political minister until his death in1 56. Philadelphia:Jewish Publication Society of America. In the aftermath of Joseph's death, the Jewish quarter of Granadawas subject to a pogrom in which many died. Vivian B. Gampel, "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in MedievalIberia: Convivencia through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews," in ConvivenciaJews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain, eds. Jewish Publication Society of America. Bernard Dov Cooperman (Newark:University of Delaware Press, 1998), 6-7. Paradoxically, some of the factors whichenabled the Jews to expand their influence, particularly in practicalaffairs, such as the growing disunity of the Muslim empire in Spain, alsomade the 11th century a time of great trial and stress for many Jews, whoincreasingly found themselves caught in the middle of the great strugglebetween Muslims and Christians for political and religious dominance in theIberian Peninsula. [22] Ashtor, Volume 3, 11. As a result, Jewish intellectual life thrivedeven before the 11th century. The first major wave of Jewish immigration to Christian Spain,principally to Castile and Navarre, occurred during this period. AaronKlein and Jenny Machlowitz Klein (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Societyof America, 1979), 7. They could not serve in the armed forces. [13] Ashtor, Volume 2, 34. . Mann, Thomas F. The increased influence and status of Jews in the 11th centuryfueled such resentments leading to such events as the massacre of Jews inGranada in 1 66. Philadelphia. Under theCovenant of Omar, non-Muslims were not supposed to hold public office. Unlike the Omayyads who stressed their independence fromBaghdad, the Taifa rulers placed no obstacles in the way ofintercommunication between the Arab and Jewish intellectual communities andtheir counterparts elsewhere in the Abbasid Muslim world, including withthe great universities in Cairo, Alexandria and Baghdad, and they raised noobjection to the Spanish Jews reopening lines of communication withrabbinical centers headed by the geonims in Babylonia where Talmudicscholarship was at its zenith. They had, for example, a near complete monopoly of physiciansand in many fields of skilled artisanry. Jews found themselves being employed by both sides and fully trustedby neither. [28] Ashtor, Volume 3, 222-223. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America,1961.Carpenter, Wayne E. As the power ofChristian kingdoms increased and their progress during the reconquistaproceeded, Jews increasingly found themselves torn between conflictingforces. JEWS IN 11TH CENTURY MUSLIM SPAIN This research paper examines the status, accomplishments andinfluence of the Jewish communities in Muslim Spain during the 11thcentury. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.