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NATIVE AMERICAN EDUCATION.   Term Paper ID:29063 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines its historical development.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines its historical development. Policies of assimilation and self-determination. Federal government's role. Belief that while culture was superior to Native American cultural customs. Failure of non-reservation boarding schools to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society. Reform efforts. Native Americans struggle for control of their children's' education. Problems encountered by Native American students in public schools. Paper Introduction: The history of Native American education is characterized by the policies of assimilation and self-determination. From 1778 to 1871, the federal government signed more than 370 treaties with various groups of Native Americans in which the government promised to provide education services to the tribes in exchange for their lands. Premised on the belief that white culture was superior to Native American cultural customs and traditions, early reformers implemented the policy of assimilation in order to transform Native Americans into individuals that could be mainstreamed into white society. However, the failure of the non-reservation boarding schools to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society, along with the reform efforts of advocates of Indian rights, led to a shift towards the policy of self-determination. The objective of this Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. In this school,students learned the Navajo Language and English. ReferencesAdams, D. (2 ). Evidently, the advocates of the assimilation policy hadfailed to take into account the fact that racial prejudice would not haveallowed Native Americans to succeed in mainstream society. Most significantly, Indian tribes contracted with the Bureau of IndianAffairs (BIA) in order to run their own schools in 1966. More significantly, only 34 percent of the schools had incorporated Indianculture in their curriculum (in St. In fact, a research study conducted by theDivision of Monitoring and Evaluation (1994) revealed that highexpectations of Native students were set in only 37 percent of the schools. (Ed.). Richard Henry Pratt, the most well-known founder ofNative American education, established the Carlisle Indian IndustrialSchool--the first non-reservation boarding school in Carlisle,Pennsylvania, dedicated solely to the education of Native Americans. Consequently, increasing numbers of Native Americanparents and communities began to assume the authority and control ofeducational institutions designated for Native Americans (Szasz, 1999).Even though the 198 s were characterized by a lack of Indian leadership atthe federal level, this period saw the widespread development of grassrootseducational leadership. Education and the American Indian: The road to self- determination since 1928. (1992). The changes in theperceptions of policymakers led to the publication of the Meriam Report in1928 that effectively challenged the original policy of assimilation. (1994). Germaine, R. (1999, Summer). Laws were passed in the 195 s thatprovided "Impact Aid" from the federal government to the states in order tohelp the latter educate the Indian children (Reyhner, 1992). The strictorganization of the schedule of the day and the academic and occupationaltasks were designed to impose military discipline on the students, thusundermining disruptive behavior and excessive socialization between oneanother. Native American education began with the funding of missionaryschools by the federal government in 1776. From Carlisle to Phoenix: The rise and fall of the Indian outing system, 1878-193 . Amidst thegrowing political representation by ethnic minorities, the Bureau of IndianAffairs altered Indian policy to cater to the movement of self-determination of the Indian people. Essentially, Indian children were able tolearn about their cultural values and the values of the white culture.Vocational programs were developed that taught vital skills to Indianstudents, which enabled them to work on the reservations. A history of Indian Education. Apart from the establishment of non-reservation boarding schools, thegovernment also financed government day schools that were established onthe reservations during the 188 s. Their effort wasenhanced by the fact that the federal government was sympathetic to theircause during the 196 s. Through their struggles with the government and the reversal ofeducational policies, Native American leaders began to acknowledge the factthat they needed to fight for self-determination. Thisschool would set the standard for other non-reservation schools thatreplicated its instructional methods and rigorous discipline. From 1778 to 1871, thefederal government signed more than 37 treaties with various groups ofNative Americans in which the government promised to provide educationservices to the tribes in exchange for their lands. Moreover, it asserted the need for the curriculum to incorporatelocal Indian life that offered a relevant learning experience for Indianstudents (Szasz, 1999). (1965). The devastating consequences of the assimilation and reservationallotment policies were reflected in the short life expectancy, disease,malnutrition and an ineffective school system at the end of World War I.Because of the lack of placement services, many graduates of the boardingschools were unable to find employment in mainstream society (Witmer,1993). These students were expected to do farmingand domestic chores for the families. With the increasing resistance of Native American parents andstudents towards the non-reservation schools, policymakers weredisappointed with the failure of the non-reservation boarding schools totransform the Indians into individuals who could blend into mainstreamsociety. The Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Reyhner, J. (1995). According to the educators, the"outing" system was effective in ensuring the complete isolation of theIndian students from the Indian culture, lowering the boarding costs of theschools and training students for manual work in the mainstream society.Some of the students continued to stay with the families during the schoolterm by working for their room and board (Trennert, 1983). Although tremendous improvementshave been achieved with the establishment of tribal schools that havelimited resources, many Native Americans are still floundering in publicschools. However, the failure of the non-reservation boardingschools to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream society, along withthe reform efforts of advocates of Indian rights, led to a shift towardsthe policy of self-determination. In response to thedevastating consequences of the policy of assimilation that has producedgenerations of Native Americans who belong to neither the Indian nor thedominant culture, Native Americans have struggled to regain their right todetermine the education of their tribes. Billings: Eastern Montana College.Reyhner, J. Because of the culturally alienatingeducation, American Indian students fare poorly in their studies, comparedto members of other groups. Indians at Hampton Institute, 1877-1923. At the same time, Congress also calledfor the creation of an education system that would not only be sensitive tothe distinctive cultural needs of Indian students, but also be directed bythe Indian people. (1993). Believing that European cultures were superior to NativeAmerican cultures, policymakers did not want to incorporate any nativecultures into the school curriculum. The teaching of NativeAmerican students was deliberately intended to inculcate the beliefs thatNative Americans were an uncivilized group of people that needed to conformto the civilized ways of the white people. The Native Americansstudying in public schools continue to struggle to maintain their Indianidentity in educational institutions that encourage them to rely on thewhite dominant culture for survival. Ultimately, theboarding schools had left the legacy of lost American Indians trappedbetween two cultures, but belonging to neither (Witmer, 1993). Skyland: Kivaki Press.Heuman, W. All students were required to wear uniforms. D. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Trennert, R. (1991). Furthermore,Indian Service teachers were trained to be respectful of the Indian cultureand adapt their teaching strategies to cater to the distinctive learningstyles and needs of the Indian students. In this conducive environment of change, all-Indianschool boards were created to lead boarding schools (Reyhner, 1992). In this environment, John Collier, the ExecutiveSecretary for the American Indian Defense Association, initiated a reformeffort that set the foundation for the abandonment of the policy ofassimilation (Reyhner, 1992). Ultimately, Native American communities will need to continuetheir challenge of preserving their cultural identities and strengtheningtheir ability to succeed in the mainstream society (Indian Nations at RiskTask Force, 1991). A. A., & Eder, J. Those who resisted faced the prospect ofincarceration. Premised on the beliefthat white culture was superior to Native American cultural customs andtraditions, early reformers implemented the policy of assimilation in orderto transform Native Americans into individuals that could be mainstreamedinto white society. Both the boys and girls weregiven occupational training based on gender. In 1966, President Lyndon Johnson appointed RobertLafollette Bennett--the first American Indian--to be the commissioner ofIndian affairs. Proceedings of the National American Indian and Alaska Native Education Research Agenda Conference. (1995). The history of Native American education is characterized by thepolicies of assimilation and self-determination. In the next seven years, eleven other contract schools werealso established, thus forming the foundation of the Indian movement totake over the control of their education (Reyhner, 1992). (1989). The objective of this paper is todescribe and analyze the historical development of Native Americaneducation. In spite of the progress, the reduction in funding for reservationsduring World War II led to the deterioration of programs and closure ofschools. Most significantly, students were forbidden tospeak their native languages even among themselves. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Szasz, M. Clearly, the Indianleaders recognized that beyond preserving their cultural traditions, theIndians needed to be able to navigate in a world that was dominated bywhite culture. C. Furthermore, an "outing" system was included in the educationalprogram in which students stayed with non-Indian families during the summerbreak from boarding schools. New York: Putnam.Indian Nations at Risk Task Force. Concomitantly, the importance ofIndian beliefs and traditions is diminished. In 1879, Col. Germaine,2 ). F. A., Jr. (1999). From boarding schools to the multicultural classroom: the intercultural politics of education, assimilation and American Indians. At the sametime, the enforced separation of the students from their families over anextended period of had also created a rift between them. The Indians of Carlisle. Second, the schools were furtherreformed with the abolition of the military routines in the non-reservationboarding schools. In spite of this positive trend, the majority of Native Americanstudents today are still studying in non-Indian controlled public schoolswhere they are instructed by non-Indian teachers. Essentially, the white educatorsbelieved that the Native Americans could only become disciplined andrespectable people by adopting Christian principles and behavior (Heuman,1965; Lindsey, 1995). Pacific Historical Review, 52, 267-291.Witmer, L. Thereport expressed its extreme disapproval of the conditions of boardingschools and recommended that elementary age children should attend dayschools. While boys acquired skills incarpentry, blacksmithing, shoemaking and farming, the girls were taught tosew, cook and launder. In addition, a dramatic shift had occurred in the scientific communityas the new science of anthropology brought forth a greater appreciation ofthe Indian cultures. Led by John Collier, who was appointed as commissioner of Indianaffairs in 1933, the recommendations of the Merriam Report were widelyimplemented. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Before that year,the federal government had exerted complete control over Native Americaneducation. Office of Education programs and the Indian Self-Determination andEducation Assistance Act of 1975 represented the increasing assertivenessof Native Americans in their effort to regain control of the education oftheir children. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.Cajete, G. Furthermore, students were alsorequired to convert to Christianity. Germaine, 2 ). Indian nations at risk: an educational strategy for action. The above discussion has highlighted the historical development ofNative American education from its enforcement of the policy ofassimilation to the policy of self-determination. The passage of the Indian Education Act of 1972 that modified majorU.S. Organizations such as the National IndianEducation Association and American Indian Higher Education Consortiumagitated for improvements in instruction and curriculum that catered to theneeds of Native American students. The National Council on Indian Opportunity was alsoestablished to enable Native Americans to take part in decision-makingprocesses that affected policies towards Native Americans. Furthermore, local school-communitypartnerships implemented experimental and innovative ideas to incorporatenative language and cultural instruction into the curriculum (St. Students were given Western names. First, Indian cultural traditions were incorporatedinto the school curriculum. E. Department of Education.Lindsey, D. Education for extinction: American Indians and the boarding school experience, 1875-1928. Native American students who rebelled against theserules and the values of the dominant culture were severely punished (Adams,1995). Thus, it is littlewonder that the dropout rate of Native American students is twice thenational average (Sanchez & Stuckey, 1999; Cajete, 1994). Carlisle: Cumberland County Historical Society. The federal government tookover the direct provision of education during the 185 s in order to imposegreater control over the process of educating the Native Americans. Research studies have shown that the American Indian culture playsa critical role in the effectiveness of education for Native Americans(Cajete, 1994; Sanchez & Stuckey, 1999). The policy of assimilation was thuscharacterized by the banning of Indian religion and languages as well asthe forced removal of Native American children from their families (Reyhner& Eder, 1989; Reyhner, 1992; Adams, 1995). The objective of the day schools was toprepare young children to attend non-reservation boarding schools.However, policymakers were not impressed with day schools because theycould not be as effective in assimilating the Native American children.The non-reservation boarding schools were regarded as the most effectivesolution and the one that exerted the most significant impact in theeducation of the Native American children (Reyhner, 1992). From 1945 to 1968, a new policy of terminating the reservationsby pushing Native American Indians into the cities led to the placement ofIndian children in public schools. Furthermore, the Native Americans' struggle to regain controlover the education of their children and carve a niche for Native Americanculture in the mainstream society will also be presented. Duringthe early period, the objective of Native American education was toassimilate the Native Americans into the white culture by placing them innon-reservation boarding schools. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Sanchez, J., & Stuckey, M. During his 12 years in office, Collier officially eliminatedthe policy of assimilation by implementing a series of drastic changes tothe education system. Because their unique cultural needs and learning styles are notacknowledged, they have failed to succeed in these educational institutionsthat seek to impose traditional standards and expectations of achievementon them. Look to the mountain: an ecology of indigenous education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 26(3), 1-13.St. In addition, community day schools were increased from132 to 226 with the concomitant increase in enrollment (Reyhner, 1992). Teaching American Indian students. A change to go full circle: building on reforms to create effective learning. The policy of self-determination was reborn andreinforced by additional participation by Native Americans in the decision-making processes. The boys' long hairwas cut. The report indicated that policymakers hadrealized that their vision of compelling Indians to embrace white culturehad not only failed to transpire, but had also led to the creation of apopulation of Americans Indians who had lost their ability to survive ineither society. The growing disillusionment with the effects of schools resulted inthe new trend of enrolling Indian children in day schools, which became thepreferred alternative during the 192 s and the 193 s. (1983). Navajo Indians established the first experimental school ontheir reservation-Rough Rock Demonstration School. Implementinga policy of complete assimilation similar to the Hampton Institute thateducated African Americans and a minority of Indians, Pratt imposed aseries of rigorous regulations with the intention of severing the NativeAmerican students' cultural connections to their culture. Instead of acknowledging thedistinctive values, skills and knowledge of these students, teachersfundamentally employ instructional methods that are designed to imposeconformity over the students. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.