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Geography of Bermuda Island   Term Paper ID:45084 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: This paper investigates the geography of Bermuda Island from pre-human times to the modern ...... More...

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Paper Abstract: This paper investigates the geography of Bermuda Island from pre-human times to the modern, including climate, Bermuda Triangle, volcanic origins, global warming, and species introduced by man. Paper Introduction: Geography of Bermuda Summary This paper discusses the geography of Bermuda starting from pre-humantimes proceeding to pre-contact times through early human contact and tothe present as well as examining some issues that will continue to besignificant in the future such as the relationship of Bermuda\'s locationand volcanic origins to the Bermuda Triangle and to global warming if any The progression of Bermuda\'s wildlife and some of its most notable treespecies through these eras is discussed with special note given to speciesof amphibians Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. He describes E. "Origin of the Bermuda volcanoes and the Bermuda Rise: History, observations, models, and puzzles." Geological Society of America Special Papers, 43 , 553-591, 2 7. "Uncovering Prehistoric Hurricane Activity." American Scientist, 95, 126-132. Liu, Kam-biu. Once unwilling to permittelevision on the island, Bermudians now have Wi-Fi hotspots and othermodern technological amenities, many of which will undoubtedly have animpact on the island's wildlife. New York: International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press, 2 5.Rueger, Bruce F., von Wallmenich, Theodore N. Dip about 5º N.W." At 147 feet, he found EarthLayer III, a 12-inch-thick, damp, clayey, light-brown layer showing a north-northwest dip (Livingston 43). "Origin of the Bermuda volcanoes and the Bermuda Rise: History, observations, models, and puzzles." Geological Society of America Special Papers, 43 , 553-591, 2 7. From 124 feet to 147 feet,Livingston's (43) notation was "Calcareous strata, considered to be BaySand of aeolian formation. Ecologists suspect thathurricanes are linked to fires, since hurricanes topple large trees thatlie there like "massive amounts of dry fuel waiting to go up in flames," sofires may have been prevalent during this period as well (Liu (132). The importance of this research paper isthat it will investigate Bermuda's geography, focusing on how humans haveimpacted it and speculating on what role Bermuda might play in themysterious phenomena of the Bermuda Triangle and global warming. At 1 8 feet, there was a dip of 25ºsouth, and at 116 feet, Livingston (43) found a vertical sand pocket on thesouth side that was more than seven feet long, which he assumed was"probably [a] tree trunk cavity." At 123 feet, there was a shift fromBermuda building stone to Earth Layer IV, which was 12 inches thick and hada 5º dip north-northeast, covering a layer of pockets containing soft,light-colored sand (Livingston 43). Approximately adozen of the islands are inhabited, and all of the islands are volcanic,being "the emerged tips of a volcanic mountain mass that rose from the seafloor several million years ago" ("Geography"). martinicensis (Wingate 21 ). Even more significantis the fact that the Bermuda intrusive sheets have high Ti and Fe, whichreflect "the very high-amplitude magnetic anomalies discovered on theislands"-a possible cause of the mysterious Bermuda Triangle anomalies(Vogt & Jung 553).Pre-Contact In order to determine the impact of humans on Bermuda Island, it isfirst necessary to figure out what Bermuda was like prior to human contact. gossei,which was already there, and now it is widespread on all parts of mainlandBermuda except the tail end of the Tucker's Town promontory (Wingate 2 8).Wingate (2 8) records that the individual call of the frog sounds like"Gleep, Gleep, Gleep," while a chorus has "a tinkling, bell-like quality."The calling occurs all year, with the loudest choruses in September andOctober (Wingate 2 8). Because it has adistinctive call, it has been relatively easy to figure out what its rangeis on Bermuda, and surveys in the summers of 1958 and 1963 found that itstill has a limited distribution (Wingate 21 ). It is 58 nautical miles east of North Carolina andover 1, miles north of the Caribbean ("Geography"). Natural limestone deposits are prevalent (CIAWorld Fact Book 128).Pre-Human Bermuda's physical environment in the pre-human era is best identifiedthrough core sampling. Thus, Bermuda will be the place to watch asthe 21st century progresses. Geography of Bermuda: Summary This paper discusses the geography of Bermuda, starting from pre-humantimes, proceeding to pre-contact times, through early human contact, and tothe present, as well as examining some issues that will continue to besignificant in the future, such as the relationship of Bermuda's locationand volcanic origins to the Bermuda Triangle and to global warming, if any. Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery. However, in their more recent quaternary stratigraphy of Bermudafrom 1994, Hearty and Vacher (689) obtained a high-resolution pre-Sangamonian rock record that gave evidence of land snails and marinedeposits. gossei's call as "a soft chuckling trill whichcan be rendered phonetically as: 'Pit-up -up tew-tew-tew-tew-tew' etc."(Wingate 21 ). Suzuki and Dressel (99) explain that thefirst humans arrived on Bermuda in approximately 1612 and describe theeffect of their advent on a bird, that cahow, whose numbers were decimatedshortly thereafter. Livingston, William. "Bermuda Natural History." Quasar, Gian. Were it not for the lackof freshwater ponds and streams on Bermuda, there might be a much greaterproliferation of amphibians, but as it is, there are three species that donot require fresh water-the Bufo marinus Linnaeus, the Eleutherodactylusmartinicensis Tschude, and the Eleutherodactylus gossei Dunn (Wingate 2 7-21 ). There are no bones in caves to testify of the large lizards'existence, either (Wingate 2 4).Modern In modern Bermuda, the long-term effects of the island's colonizationare finally being seen. Livingston does not specify what types of fossils existed in thefossil layers, whether these were comprised of both plant and animal ormerely plant layers. Eleutherodactylus gossei was first reported on Bermuda by Pope in1917, when he found it most common in Paget in the White's Island vicinity,although not west of there (Wingate 21 ). Around them are coralreefs, and the islands' interiors have low hills, with the highest peakbeing only 259 feet high ("Geography"). From 148 to 196 feet, there was limestonethat was noted to be harder than the Bay Sand formation and "considered tobe Bastard Limestone," with the strata being fairly horizontal from 148 to152 feet, dipping slightly southward at 176 feet, becoming an 18-inch thickfine sand layer at 184 feet and dipping northward, showing water surface at194.5 feet, and reaching the bottom of the well at 196 feet, where thelimestone was still considered to be "Bastard Limestone" (Livingston 43). Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery. Thesethree facets of Bermuda's geography are all compelling, and all three makeit well worth closer scrutiny. Inaddition, Bermuda is "an underwater volcano with a limestone cap"(Malmquist). They hypothesize that sea level rose to the level it is now, orpossibly above, and that in terms of climate there were at least twointerglacials of the early- to mid-Pleistocene age followed by a 3 , -to 4 , -year hiatus before interglacial flooding resumed. Springer Link. Wingate (21 ) estimates that itmust have been established at least a few years before 19 , either inPembroke East, Paget East, or Devonshire West, and believes that itsintroduction was accidental; it may have arrived on plants imported fromJamaica. New York: International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press, 2 5.Suzuki, David; Dressel, Holly. At 25 feet,there was a 25º dip south, and again at 3 feet, there was a 2 º dip west,as well as a soft eight-inch thick sand layer that Livingston (43)describes as "not a fossil earth." From 39 to 48 feet, he found thebuilding stone more finely textured than at 24 feet, and there was a 4 ºdip south (Livingston 43). Bastard Limestone is too hard tocut with a saw but too soft to be classified a hard cemented BermudaLimestone, while Bermuda Limestone is comprised of two distinct layers witha fossil earth in between; it is the oldest aeolian formation in Bermudaper Livingston (44). Wingate (2 6) pointed out that while the Bermuda'scolonization after 16 reduced its isolation by virtue of regular shipcommunications, it still took another two and a half centuries for theisland's humid, sub-tropical climate and other conditions conducive tosupporting tropical and sub-tropical species to bear fruit. Extensive studies on this complex of volcanoes andtheir bearing on the Bermuda Triangle have not been done, and it ispossible that Bermuda's volcanic origins give it some properties thatcreate an oceanic vortex or an electromagnetic field disturbance givingrise to the phenomena of the Bermuda Triangle. At 74 feet, henoted "Building stone; dip 15º S." (Livingston 43). Hearty and Vacher (694) assertthat there were "at least six pre-Holocene major positive sea-level cycles,individually bracketed by terra rossa paleosols" recorded in Bermuda'sstrata. In addition, although Bermuda has resisted industrialization,technology is steadily encroaching on the island. Malmquist, David. Eleutherodactylus martinicensis is actually native to the LesserAntilles, but in 1916, Pope found it common all through Pembroke as fareast as the Causeway, and noted a single frog calling in St. Bermuda's position in the AtlanticOcean makes it a pivotal site if there is to be significant global warmingor any other climatic change. The decrease is attributed to the arrival of colonists,and a second decrease occurring above .7 m is attributed to the scaleinfestation and the destruction of the Bermuda cedars (Rueger & vonWallmenich 59). Bermuda today little resembles the original island discovered in 161 . Malmquist, David. JSTOR. It is to be expected that like otherpopulated islands, Bermuda has to battle pollution both on land and in thewater, and the world's seas have in general become polluted already due towaste dumping.Future A key question for the future of modern-day Bermuda is whether theparticular location and structure of the island have anything to do withits place in the Bermuda Triangle. The toad eats mainly large insects such as cockroaches,grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, and moths, so it is still a valuablecontrol mechanism for keeping those species in check (Wingate 2 7). Wingate, David. However, thespecies spread extremely rapidly, and one account from that time states,"So numerous were they that in the spring the roads near the spawningplaces were not infrequently made literally black by hordes of the animals"(Wingate 2 7). The climate in Bermuda issubtropical with mild, humid weather, but the island is subject to strongwinds, and even gales, in winter and to hurricanes from June to November(CIA World Fact Book 128). Thetoad has no significant natural predators, and dogs and cats avoid itbecause the poison it secretes from the parotoid glands in its skin cancause convulsions and death when consumed orally (Wingate 2 7). They explain that carbonate islands like Bermuda are the resultof climatic change in which "warm climates and high sea levels stimulatecarbonate sediment production that may ultimately result in island growth,while cold glacial expose the platforms to weathering, dissolution and soilformation," extolling Quaternary studies as enabling man to "decipher thisclimatic history" (Hearty & Vacher 685). "Terrestrial Herpetofauna of Bermuda." Herpetologica, 21.3, (Sep 1965), 2 2-218. The future of Bermudawill be in some sense predicated on how far technology progresses and whichtechnologies are allowed to reside there. William Livingston (41) noted Bermuda's importance with respect toglobal climatic changes, and his stratigraphic research is detailed in thepaper, providing clues to Bermuda's pre-human environment. If so, we can expect to be surprised whenscientists discover how Bermuda's volcanic origins relate to the seeminglyunrelated phenomena that affect both the region and the earth as a whole. JSTOR. Radiocarbon dating indicates 52 plus or minus 7 years BPat a depth of 1.7 m, and at that level there are "major changes in relativeabundance of palynomorphs in proximity to the marsh surface which allowstheir interpretation as a record of human impact on the endemic flora ofBermuda" (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59). Thereis even the Bermuda International Airport, which takes up precious space onan island where space is limited. The ground level was Earth Layer V and was very thin-no more thansix inches thick (Livingston 43). "Observations on the Structure of Bermuda." The Geographical Journal, 1 4.1/2, (Jul-Aug 1944), 4 -48. "Observations on the Structure of Bermuda." The Geographical Journal, 1 4.1/2, (Jul-Aug 1944), 4 -48. The pillow lavasthat formed the original Bermuda shield volcano are as yet not reliablydated, but there is a well-dated episode pegged at 33-34 Ma where"unusually titaniferous sheet intrusion in the Bermuda edifice was eithertriggered by platewide stress changes or reflects local volcanogenic eventsdeep in the mantle source region" (Vogt & Jung 553). The call may be heard at all seasons of the year at nightas long as the temperature is above 65º F., but it is more prevalent in wetweather than that of E. He notes thatthere are now six introduced species that have naturalized on Bermuda, allof which have become established within the last 9 years, and all of whichoriginate from the Caribbean area (Wingate 2 7). Other effects of human contact are detailed, leadinginto the modern day, and future research is anticipated concerning the roleof Bermuda in global warming and the Bermuda Triangle. This limestone is hard and granite-like and can bepolished (Livingston 44). This suggests that Bermuda needs to carefully containtechnological change if it wants to retain the island's hospitableenvironment for its wildlife.Conclusion Bermuda's is a unique position in that it is not only part of theBermuda Triangle but also has been extensively impacted by man. In 1944, William Livingston took a core sample onBermuda at the military well in Prospect, Bermuda, with the followingresults. Like thePacific's Ring of Fire, a series of volcanoes in the shape of a ring, thereis also a configuration of volcanoes in the Atlantic Ocean, although inlarge part they travel north to south in the ocean parallel to the coastsof Europe and Africa. Curiously, most of thedisappearances have occurred in fair weather, have not been accompanied bydistress messages, and have left no wreckage or bodies (Quasar 1). CIA World Fact Book; 2 1, p128, 7p, 1 map EBSCO Host.Hearty, Paul J.; Vacher, H. Finally, there is the Bermuda Triangle located in the area betweenBermuda, Miami, and Key West, of which it has been said, "in the annals ofsea mysteries, there is no other place that challenges mankind with so manyextraordinary and incredible events, for this is where far more aircraftand ships have disappeared throughout recorded maritime history than in anyother region of the world's oceans" (Quasar 1). Vancouver: Greystone Books, 2 3.Vogt, Peter R.; Jung, Woo-Yeol. Liu (129) points out that hurricanes struck often between 3,8 and 1, years ago as a result of the position of the Bermuda High, a high-pressuresystem found over the subtropical Atlantic that redirects hurricanes comingoff the coast of West Africa toward North America. As Quasar (7) states, "the Bermuda Triangle'smystery is inseparable from its location, and its ultimate solutiontherefore must be found in solving the greater mystery of this Earth, thisisland at the confluence of the fabulous currents of mass and energy andtime and space." The small island of Bermuda may someday provide theanswers to the mystery of the Bermuda Triangle, as well as to globalwarming and the relationship of the Atlantic volcanoes to the problemsassociated with the region. The writer has no personal experience withBermuda, having never visited there nor studied the area previously, and nofriends or family members have any knowledge of the area that would beuseful in this research.Discussion Bermuda Island is located in the Atlantic Ocean and is actuallycomprised of 15 small islands that only measure 21 square miles all toldand less than a mile across, and is generally referred to as a singleisland ("Geography"). Good News for a Change: How Everyday People Are Helping the Planet. Following this population explosion of toads, theirpopulation declined to a stable level, as evidenced by a quotation fromPope: "In later years it has been very noticeable that the number of toadshas greatly decreased and that very large specimens are by no meansabundant" (Wingate 2 7). There is not much left on the tiny island that is still wild, and theisland is populated with hotels, restaurants, roadways, and other amenitiesthat have displaced much of the original habitat for its wildlife. Ruegerand von Wallmenich (59) assert that "the flora and geography of uplandhabitats on Bermuda have been drastically modified by humans" but alsopoint out that the peat marsh basins have barely been affected. He describes Building Stone as cream-colored when justquarried but notes that it turns grey on its exposed surface, while BaySand is "a comparatively fine-grained stratum of closely packed calcareousparticles not cemented" (Livingston 44). Wingate (2 4) suspects Smith was either referringto a different species, E. George's(Wingate 2 8). Moreover, with much of theworld's attention on the issue of global warming, Livingston's (41)observation that any climatic change in Bermuda could affect the climate ofthe world must be considered with some seriousness. As a result of the decreases in cedar and palmetto, theabundance of Poaceae and Asteraceae show an increase, which is due to theclearing of land and the subsequent spread of weeds (Rueger & vonWallmenich 59). Bermudahas become significantly changed from a wild island where cahows used tolive plentifully and in peace and cypresses and palmettos were at home intheir habitat to one overrun frogs and toads and depleted of cahows,cypresses, and palmettos. The colonists made heavy use of twospecies of flora, the Bermuda cedar (Juniperus bermudiana) and the Bermudapalmetto (Sabal bermudana); the cedar was used to build houses andfurniture, as well as for shipbuilding and export, while the palmetto wasused to provide thatching for roofs, make baskets, and even for food anddrink (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59). "Human impact on the forests of Bermuda: the decline of endemic cedar and palmetto since 16 9, recorded in the Holocene pollen record of Devonshire Marsh." Journal of Paleolimnology, 16, 59-66, 1996. Smith acknowledges that lizards were present onBermuda before 1623 and say that they were large and numerous but that hiscat had destroyed them (Wingate 2 4). Although theories abound on the causesof the Bermuda Triangle phenomena, it is not certain whether these arerelated to the fact that Bermuda is inhabited, whether they are caused bymagnetic forces, or if they could be a function of Bermuda's volcanicorigins and its place in the volcanic map of the Atlantic. Wingate(2 4) reports that after man arrived on Bermuda, there was a "subsequentestablishment of domestic animals, rats, amphibians, and other reptiles,"but that early accounts by Captain John Smith were confusing on whether theskink was prevalent. Theydescribe the cahow as "fearless, friendly, and delicious," and they lamentthe fact that once the settlers had arrived, the cahow "disappeared evenfaster than the deer of Massachusetts" (Suzuki & Dressel 99). These layers suggest a pre-human environmentthat was conducive to human survival, with the fossil layers indicatingthat plants and animals did live then, and the tree trunk layersdemonstrating that trees survived long enough to become of substantialsize. Later on, between the years1946 and 1951, the accidental introduction of two scale insects wiped out95% of the existing cedar population (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59). Wingate (2 4) notes, however, thatalthough this might suggest that there were originally larger species onBermuda that had since been eliminated, Garman (1884) cites Strachy's(161 ) account and Rev. Hughes' (1614) account, neither of which mentionslizards, and suggests that had there been large lizards there, they wouldnot have escaped notice. JSTOR. Both species were so heavily exploitedthat the General Laws of Bermuda began including protections for them asearly as 1622 (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59). Vancouver: Greystone Books, 2 3.Vogt, Peter R.; Jung, Woo-Yeol. There was not a significant amount of floral diversity, however,because the island was isolated and there was no contact from man thatwould bring in new species (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59).Post-Contact When the ship Sea Venture wrecked on the Bermuda reefs in 16 9, it wasthe beginning of "continuous habitation by humans" on the Bermuda islands,resulting in "significant changes to the native and endemic flora ofBermuda" (Rueger & von Wallmenich 59). The paperwill include sections on methodology, discussion, and a conclusion.Methodology The methodology to be followed in the paper includes both library- andInternet-based research. One of thepeat marsh basins, Devonshire Marsh, was tested through the extraction of a9-m core, and the pollen record below 1.6 m showed only minimal change inBermuda's native and endemic flora, while that above that depth showedsignificant changes in the relative abundance of both the Bermuda cedar andBermuda palmetto pollen, denoting decreases of both species (Rueger & vonWallmenich 59). Bufo marinus today is common on all of the largerislands and a few smaller ones, but it does not exist on Ireland Island(Wingate 2 7). Onlymigrant herons eat very young toads, and even the introduction of cars onBermuda in 1948, while it results in large numbers of toads killed on wetroads at night, has not diminished the population significantly (Wingate2 8). Asidefrom these climatic conditions, all other indications are that Bermuda wasa pleasant island with a normal component of fauna and flora prior to humancontact. "Quaternary Stratigraphy of Bermuda: A High-Resolution Pre-Sangamonian Rock Record." Quaternary Science Review, 13, 685-697, 1994. Leonard. Works Cited"Geography." Bermuda Island.net. Bermuda's volcanic structure is thought to be the result of someigneous activity that began around 47 to 4 Ma and lasted until the earlyto middle part of the Middle Eocene (Vogt & Jung 553). Although accounts of the frogs vary, it is fairly certainthat the original establishment of the species took place in PembrokeParish. Its spread was hampered by competition with E. Suzuki and Dressel (99) estimate that the first humans settled onBermuda and its general vicinity around 1612, and they gauge the effect ofhumans on the island by its impact on an island bird, the cahow. The small size of the island isparticularly significant in reference to technology, since radio waves andother "waste" from technology can have a deleterious effect more quickly insuch a small space. From ground level to 123 feet, Bermudabuilding stone was found, layered as follows (Livingston 43). ReferencesLivingston, William. At 7 feet, there was a soft, sandy layer 18 to4 inches thick and a southerly dipping (Livingston 43). Good News for a Change: How Everyday People Are Helping the Planet. Geography of Bermuda IslandIntroduction The geography of Bermuda Island is important for a number of reasons.As William Livingston (41) observed of the Bermuda Island(s), "Any majorchanges regularly repeated and recorded in the strata of these islandscould indicate changes in climatic conditions affecting the earth as awhole." Livingston (41) reported that Bermuda was considered "a gauge inthe Atlantic" that indicates high and low sea-level periods and that isalso thought to be associated with glacial and interglacial periods. Although the volcano has been extinct for millions of years,the volcano has two underwater calderas, or mouths-one at Hamilton Harborand one at Castle Harbor (Malmquist), and should the volcano ever becomeactive again, Bermuda Island would be at risk due to the island's smallsize. The four types of limestone found in Bermuda from the surface downwardinclude Building Stone, Bay Sand, Bastard Limestone, and Bermuda Limestone,of which all but the Bermuda Limestone were found in the core sample(Livingston 43). Thephenomenon of the Bermuda Triangle and the mysterious happenings associatedwith it are described (Quasar 1). The progression of Bermuda's wildlife and some of its most notable treespecies through these eras is discussed, with special note given to speciesof amphibians that were introduced by man and that impacted the island in asignificant manner. "Bermuda Natural History." Quasar, Gian. Suzuki, David; Dressel, Holly. The "whistling frogs," Eleutherodactylus martinicensis, werereportedly on Bermuda in very small numbers prior to 188 when AdmiralBedford's wife brought a pair of them from Jamaica and set them free(Wingate 2 8). In addition,Bermuda's volcanic origins are discussed (Malmquist; Vogt & Yung 553). longirostris, or was confusing another islandwith Bermuda. At 87 feet, there wasa 4 º dip southwest, and at 9 feet, the building stone was horizontal andmore finely textured (Livingston 43). Thus, there is not a clear idea of the biota of theperiod. The toad Bufo marinus was deliberately introduced from Demerara,British Guiana in 1885 when two dozen were released in a Devonshire gardenfor the purpose of catching garden insects (Wingate 2 7). At the same time, its long-extinct volcanoesseem ominously meaningful in the light of the mysterious phenomenaassociated with the Bermuda Triangle. 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